Skip to main content

Full text of "NilgirisFrancis"

See other formats 


MADRAS DISTRICT GAZETTEERS. 



THE NILGIEIS. 



BY 

W. FBANOIS, 

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE. 



MADRAS: 
PJtIHTMD SOT TfBJ SOTE2UNTEHBBKT, eOTEKNMEOT PB 

J 908. 



PREFACE. 



The original ' District Manual ' of the Nilgiris was published 
in 1880, It was chiefly compiled by the lute Mr. H. B. Grigg, 
I.O.S., but several of the chapters were contributed by others. 
This system necessarily resulted in considerable overlapping, 
and thus, though the present volume is much smaller than 
its predecessor, it omits, it is hoped, little of the contents of 
the latter which is of permanent interest. 

As with the other District Gazetteers of the present series, 
—statistics have been for the most part relegated to a separate 
Appendix, which is to . be revised decennially, after each 
Census. 

Thanks to the various gentlemen, official and. non-official, 
who have kindly rendered mo assistance, have been tendered 
>yhere possible in the body of the volume ; but special obliga- 
tions have been incurred to Sir Frederick ' Price, k.o.s.i., 
whose • forthcoming work on Ootacamund, the capital of the 
District, has exhausted the available material on the most 
interesting of all the subjects dealt with in the following 
■pages. 

This is the last of the District Gazetteers which I have 
been directed to prepare, and I wish to acknowledge grate- 
fully the valuable and untiring help which I have received 
throughout the production o£ the series from my two Assist- 
ants, M.R.Rys. 8. Dandapani Aij&v and C, Hayavadana Rao. 

W. F, 
March, 1907. 



PLAN OF CONTENTS. 



Ohabthe 

I. PhTSZGAL Dl3SCRIPTI<Wf 

II. Political History 

III. The People .. . . 

IV. Ageicultubb 

Y. FOEBBTS , . . . » . . • 

VX Occupations and Trade 

Y.TI. Means <jf Communication 
YIII. Rainfall and Seasons 
IX. Public Health 
X. Education 

XI. LrAND KeVJSNUE A-DMINISTEATION 

XII. Salt, Abkari and Miscellaneous Bsvunuis 

XIII. ASMINISTBATrON OP JUSTICE 

XIV. Local Self-Goyeenmisnt 

XT. Sakbotibb— 

CoonoQr Taluk 

Ootaeamund Taluk . . 

04aal«r Taluk 

btmx .. ,, . . • . 



EASBS 

1-80 
90-132 
123-162 
168-207 
208-221 
232-226 
226-241 
2*2-246 
247-2*6 
267-266 
267-28* 
286-291 
392-297 
298-811 

812-8« 
346-83'J 
S6S-877 
879-88* 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



OHAFTEB I. 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



General Description (page 1) — Position and boundaries — Taluks and oMef 
towns (3) — Natural divisions ; the plateau — Its chief heights (S) — The 
Wynaad (0) — Rivers and waterfalls (7). Geology (10) — The plateau— 
Minerals there (12) — The Wynaad. (IS) — Minerals there ; mica, iron — Gold ,• 
early explorations — Mr, Brough Smyth's report upon it (15) — The boom of 
3.880 (16). Floea. (19) — General remarks — Botanical divisions of the 
bills (20) — Deciduous forests on slopes — Their characteristics (21) — and 
valuable timbers — Moist evergreen forests of the slopes — Their character- 
istic trees (23) — and timbers — The sholas or woods of the plateau (23) — 
Their characteristic irees— antl timbers — and ferns and L mosses— The 
grassland, of the plateau 1 (24) — Its characteristic shrnha-aiid beautifnl 
plants (25) — Books of reference (26)— Introduced plants. Zoology (28) — 
Domestic animals ; Cattle— Sheep (29) — Pigs — Horses and ponies— Game 
animals— Elephants— Tigers (30)— Leopards and bears (31) — Deer — Biaon 
(32)— Pig— The Kilgiri ibex— Wild dojrs (33)— The Game Association— Ths 
smaller mammals (3A)-~The Ootaearaund Hunt (35)— Birds (36)— Pish (37) 
— Poaching ott the Bhavani (S9)— Experiments with, exotic fish— Eeptiles 
(M) — Shells, Appendix I, List of the no-waring 1 plants, etc. (45) — Apmndxx 
If, The Mammalia of the district (75) — A?pesdix: IH, Birds of the district 
(77) — AppfiKsrx XV. Eeptiles of the district (84) — Appendix Y, Land and 
fresh, water sheila of the district (88) .. ... .. 



OHAPTBB II. 

POLITICAL HISTORY. 

"Saslt Histo&y (page 90)— Under the Ganga kings (91)— The Kadamb&s— The 
Hoyaalae—Their Dannayakae (92)— and the kings of Mysore (93)— Dearth 
of historical material— The antiquities of the hills (94)~-Cairn9 and barrowB 
(96)— Their contents— Their builders (97)—Jsa,mms (98)— Kiatvaeius— 
Cromlechs (99)— Their builders— The best specimens (3.00)— Historical 
inferences from these antiquities (101). English Period (102)— Affairs at 
the end of the 18th century— The fall of Seringapatam and cession of the 
district, 1799-La.ter history of the Wynaad— The Pyohy rebel (10S)—His 
death in 1805 (105)— The plateau; first European -visitors— Portuguese 
priests, 1602— Dr. Bnchauan, 1809 (108)— Keys aud MacMahoa, 1812(107) 
—Whish. and Kindersley, 1818 (lOS)-John Sullivan, 1819— The first 
bridle-path to the plateau, 1821 (109) — Beports regarding its climate dis- 
credited (110)— First mention, of Qotaeamnnd, 1821 (111)— It becomes the 
capital of she plateau, 182S~Progress np to then (112)— Improvements 



TABLE OP COKTEOTB. 



FA62 



between 1823 and 1S25 (£13)— Sir Thomas Mtmro'e visit, 1826—Govem- 
ment assistance to Ooteeamund, 18S7 (11*) — Progress up to then (115)— 
Mr. 9. It. Luahington becomes Governor — His support of the sanitarium' — 
Hia visit to the Hills, 1829 (116)— Part of the plateau transferred to Mala- 
bar, 1830 (11?)— STew roads to it—- Other improvements (118)— Progress up 
to 1833— The Convalescent Depot abolished by Sir F. Adam, 183-1 (120)— 
Other changes by hia Government — The plateau re-annexed to Coimbatore, 
1843 (121)— The ftimdahs, etc., added to it, 1860— It is placed under a 
Commissioner, 1868 (122)— The Ouchderlony Volley and the Wynaad 
added to it- 'It becomes a Oolieci orate, 1882 , , 90-122 



CHAPTEB III. 

THE PEOPLE. 

G/HNffiKAL Characteristics (page 123)— Density of the population— Its growth 
— Languages spoken (124) — Religions — Parsis— Musalmans, CheisTUN 
Missions (125)— Roman Catholic Mission— The Church Missionary Society 
(128)— The Church of England Zenana Mission Society (la?)— The Basel 
Lutheran Mission — The American Mission— Other non-conformists (128). 
Pbjhcipal Castes— Badagaa— Ko'tas (135)— Tocfas (138)— Irnlaa (1S1)— 
Kurumbas (158) — Relatione between the five tribes (157) — Ohettia (158) — 
Mandadan Ohettia— Wynaadan Chettia (159)— Faniyana (160) 128-162 



CHAPTER IV- 
AGRICULTURE. 

Osbbai'j Oaoes (page 163)— Statistics— Cultivation on the plateau (165)— Soils 
— MethodB (166)— Chief crops— Cultivation in the Wynaad (188)— Soile 
(169)— Methods on dry land— On wet land. Special Products (170)— 
GoSee— Its first introduction— Subsequent vicissitudes (172)— Cultivation 
(173)— Diseases (174)- Processes of manufacture (176)— Tea (177)-Ite first 
introduction (1 78)— And subsequent extension (1 79}— Processes of manu- 
facture (180)— Cinchona (182)— Its introduction— Government plantations 
begun (188)— The first, febrifuge made (186)— Changes in administration 
— Private planting of cinchona (188)— Work on the Government plants - 
tions at present— -Maintenance of the supply of bark (187) — The species 
of cinchona yown (188)— Harvesting of the barb— Manufacture of 
quinine— Rubber (190) — Jts introduction — Extent novr planted (191) — 
Harvesting— Rhea fibre ('02). Fkuit-thehs, et.fi.— Apples (193)— Pears 
(194)— Medlars (195) -Quinces— Peaches— Nectarines— Apricots— Plums 
(396)— Persimmon— Cherries ( Ui7)— Currants— G ooseberries-- Raspberries 
—Strawberries (i 98)— Mulberries— Figa (199) -Ymes— Guavas— Orasigee 
and lemons— Cherimoyer (200)— Nuts— Bee- keeping. Govjwkmest Farms 
an» Gaudbss (202) — The Kefi farm — The Governmonfe Gardens, Ootaoa- 
xmmd (204)— The Kalhatfci branch garden. (206)— The Goonoor branoh 
garden, — Sim's Paris:, Ooonoor— The Barliyir Garden — The present Gov- 
arnment Gardens and Parks (207) ... .,. ... ... .., .,. 168-S07 



TABU! OF CONTENTS. Xl 

CHAPTER V. * , 

FORESTS. 

Woods ok the Plateau (page 208) — Their nature-— Destruction in early days 
— Mrst conservation (210) — Dr. Cieghorn's aug-geBtionB, 1858 — RtiIob for 
their protection, 1860 (211) — Their transfer to the Commissioner, 1868 — 
Retransfer to the Forest department, 1875 — Reservation tinder the 
Forest .Act — Tdda pattoi lands (212) —Present system m the plateau 
woodlands (218). Artificial Firewood Plantations — First introduc- 
tion o£ Australian trees — The first (ro^ernment plantations (214) — The 
existing plantations (215) — Their chief enemies (217). Deciduods 
Forests of thk Kortbfkn Slopes (218)— Growth in the Moyar Valley — 
Sandalwood plantation. Deciduous Forests ot the Wvnaad— Eenne 
forest (219) — Teak plants Hon— Mncfumal.ii forest — Teak plantation there 
iSfil) .., 208-221 

CHAPTER YI. 

OCCUPATIONS AND TRADE. 

Occupations (page 232)— Arts and industries. Trade (223). Weiwhts akd 
Measures (224) — Laud measure — Measures of capacity — Lineal measure 
(236)— Table of weights— Monetary terras 222-325 

CHAPTER VII. 

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 
Roads (page 226) — The Dnimayakank6*itai-D&iacl path— The S&ndapatti 
paaa— The first Kdtagiri gh&t (22V)— The present K&agiri gHt— The first 
Ooonoor ghat (228) — The present Ooonoor ghat (229)— The Sigur ghat 
(230)— TheSispfira gUt (232)~The first Gudal&r ghat (288)- The pre- 
sent Gtfdalur g-hat (234) — Roads on the plateau (235) — Wynaad roads— 
Management, of the roads (236)— Avenues— Travellers' bungalows and 
chattrams — Table of distances (23V). Railways —The Nilgiri railway — 
Sketch history of it (238)— Extension to Ooijacamund (240)— Projected 
i-ailways ... , 226-241 

CHAPTER YIH. 

RAINFALL AND REASONS. 

R unimli, (page 212) — Influence o£ the south -west monsoon (243) — and of the 
north-east monsoon— Tho highest and lowest falls (244) — The figures for 
Oofcaeaaaund— Hail storms (245). Bad Seasons. Floods and Storms — Tn 
18flB— Ta 1881 (24(i)~-In lS&l—In 1P02— In 1905 242-246 

CHAPTER IX. 

PUBLIC HEALTH. 

Olimai'k (page 247V— On the plateau—The observatory on Dodfihetto (251)— 
Rffects of the climate— Climate of the Wynaacl (252) Diseases (253) — 
Cnolera— Stnall-pox — Plague. Medical Institutions (234)— QiSdalltr 
nospital— -Coonooi* hospital— 8t. Bartholomew's hospital, Oofcaoaammtl 
(256) ... . » ... 247-286 



Sll TABUS OF CONTESTS. 

OHAPISB X. 

EDUCATION. 

PASS 
Census Statistics (page 257) — Education by religions and taluks. Educa- 
tional Institutions — Lowpt secondary schools for boys — Breaks' Memo- 
rial S«hool (258) — Lower secondary schools for girls (250) — The Hobart 
School — Upper secondary schools for boys — St. Joseph's School, Coonoor 
(261) — The Staues School — The Lawrence Asylum— Upper secondary 
sclioolH for girts (264)— Schools for indigenous castes (265) , Newspapers. 257-266 

CHAPTER XI. 

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION. 

■Revenue History (page 267). Ok the Plateau-— Settlements with the culti- 
vating hill castes — The ' bhurty ' system (2f>8) — ' Ayan ' grass and ' graz- 
ing pattae ' (269) — Nominal abolition of the bhurty system, 1 863— Abolition 
of plough and hoe taxes —Settlements with the T^das (270)— And with. 
European and other iro migrants (272)— The Waste Land Utiles of 1863 
(273) — Masinigufli an exceptional tract (274)-— The survey of 1870-80, 
The Existing Settlement op 1881-S-± — Methods adopted thereat (275) — 
Village establishments revised (£77)— Features <,£ the settlement — Settle- 
ment of Masiuigudi (278). Ketenue History as the Wynaad — The 
former revenue system — The first survey (279)— The escheat enquiry 
(280). The Existing Settlement — Its principles— Its results (281) — 
Settlement of the Ouohtorlony Valley (282). Existing Administrative 
A&kanoisients. Apphndix, Commissioners and Collectors of the Nilgiris 
(284) ... ... . .,. 287-285 

CHAPTER XII. 
SALT, ABKAeI AND MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE. 
Salt (page 286)— Saltpetre. AbrIbi anp ^nra—Toddy— Arrack (287)— 
Foreign liquor (288)— Beer (289)— Opium and hemp-drags (290). In- 
oome-tax (292). Stamps 286-293 

CHAPTER XIII. 

ADMINISTRATION 03? JUSTICE. 

Or? it Justice (page 292) — The existing civil courts-— "Registration. Csimihat, 
Justice — The present tribunals — Crime (293) — Coffee-stealing. Polios 
(294.)— IPornier systems— The existing force (296). .Tails— The District 
Ja.il— The European prison (297)— Suh-jaile ,. 232-29? 

CHAPTER XIT. 

LOCAL SEL'F-GOVEKNKENT. 
The District Boakd (page 298)— Its finances. Wellington Oastonment 
(299), Coonoob MuNiriipALiyx— Drainage (300) — Water-supply. Ogta- 
cabiuns JStuNigiPAtiTT (SOS) — Its early b&otU— Tho market (305) — 
Drainage (306)— water-supply (307)— The Marlimand supply (308)— The 
Dodabetta resevvoiir (309)— The ICadapaman.3 reservoir (310) — The Tiger 
Hill reservoir—- Checking of overcrowding , ... ... ,, 298-511 



TABLB OV CONTENTS. X1U 

OHAPTKK £V. " . 

PAGE 
CooKooa Taldk (312) — Aravaiikad — jHliikarihatti (.316) — Barliya* — B6rgatmi 
— Coonoor (317)— D6nad (62*)— bnubatti (32S)— Hulikal ' Drag (328)— 
XiUn (330)--Kengarai— K6ti (331!-— Kodanad (333)— Kdnakarai (333)— 
Kdtagiri (334)— Kulak amhai (339)— MeWr— Eaagasvami Peak (310)— 
Wellington (341). 0otacami;nd *j aluk (345)— Anaikafcti — Avalanche — 
Billikal (348)— Kalhatti (349) — Masmigudi (351)— Hclvor's Bund (362)— 
Mfilkundah (353; — Mdkarti Peak (364)— Naduvafctam (S56) — Naigauact— 
OoLacamund (357)— Sis para (363)— T6n6ri (364). GrtsALVR Taluk (365) 
—Ch^rambadi (36G)~ D^vala— G-ddalar (36S)— Mudutualai- Nainbalakdd 
(369)— Nellakdtfcai— Nellialam (370)— Ouchterlony Valley (372)~ Pantlalur 
(377) 312-377 



GAZETTEER 



N1LGIRI DISTRICT. 



CHAPTER I. 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



GSenekat, Description — Position ami boundaries— Taluks and chief towns — 
Natural divisions ; the plateau— ltd chief heights — The Wynaad — Rivers 
and waterfalls . Geology — The plateau — Minerals there — The Wynaad— 
Minerals there ; mica, iron — Gold ; early explorations — Mr, Bvough Smyth's 
report upon it— The boom of 1880. Flora— General remarks— Botanical 
divisions of the hills — Deciduous forests on slopea — Their characteristic 
trees — And valuable timbers— Moist evergreen forests of the slopes — Their 
characteristic trees— And timbers— The sholas or woods of the plateau — 
Their characteristic trees — And timbers — And ferns and moBses — The grass- 
land of the plaVau — Its characteristic shrubs — And beautiful plants— Books 
of reference — Introduced plants. Zoology — Domestic animals ; Ca'.tle — 
Sheep — Pi«'s — Horses and ponies — Game animals- TSIephsuts—- Tigers- 
Leopards and bears— Deer— Bison— Pig — The Milgiri ibex— Wild dogs — The 
Game Association— The smaller mam male— The Ootacamund Hunt — 
Birds— "Pish — Poaching on the Bhavani — Experiments with exotic fish- 
Reptiles— Shells, Appendix J, Lift of flowering plants, etc. Afpscndix II, 
The Mammalia of the district. Appendix III, Birds of the district. Appen- 
dix IT, Eeptiles of the district, Apfenbix V, Land and fresh-water shells 
of the district, 

Thh Nilgiri HiUs — properly Nila-giri, ' the Blue Mountain/ and CHAP. I. 
formerly usually written * Neilgherry ' — consist of the great plateau Dl ^f J^ . 

(about 35 miles long, 20 broad and some 6,500 feet high on an ' 

average) upheaved at the junction, of the ranges of. the Eastern and P°«**ton_ana 
Western Gib Sits, which run southwards at a converging angle 
through, the Madras Presidency. The name Nilagiri, which 
(see p. 92 below) is at- least 800 years old and was bestowed 
by the dwellers in the plains below the plateau, was doubtless 
suggested by the blue haze which envelops the range in common 
with, most distent bills of considerable siae. The idea that it is 



Bkucsiption. 



2 THE NILGlKIg. 

due to Site violet blossoms of tke masses of Strobihnthes which 
^enseal periodically carpet wide 1 stretches of the grass downs of the plateau 
is a latter-day. refinement : these plants do not grow along the 
outer edge of the kills, are invisible from the low country, and so 
are not likely to have originated the name. 

The district called the Nilgiris includes, "besides the great 
plateau from which it is named, three widely different outlying 
tracts ; namely, a strip of malarious jungle skirting the northern 
foot of the plateau ; the Guchterlony Yalley on the west, a deep 
recess in the high wall of the plateau called after the man who 
(see p. 873) first exploited it ; and, still further west> the country 
known as the South-east Wynaad ( ( the land of swamps '), a table- 
land of hamboo forest, paddy-fiats and hogs lying about 3,5U0 
feet lower than the plateau and the same height above the sea. 
The map in the pocket at the end of this volume shows the position 
of these three areas. Excepting Madras City, the Nilgiri district 
is by far the smallest in the Presidency, its area and population 
(957 square miles and 111,43? persons) both being- less than those 
of many a taluk in tho plains. • 

The natural boundary of the plateau along much of its south- 
ern side is the Bliavaui river, and that along a great part of its 
northern frontier is the Moy&r. which joins the Bhavani near the 
mouldering fort of Dannayakankottai close under Kangasvami 
Peak, the easternmost height of the Nilgiris. But, as the map 
shows, the administrative boundary follows far less simple lines, 
running sometimes along the top of the steep crests of the hills, 
sometimes in a bee-line across impenetrable jungle, and sometimes 
along the conrse of one or other of the numberless streams which 
pour down to join the aforesaid two rivers. The boundary of the 
South-east Wynaad follows no natural features at all on the north 
and west ; bat on the east it runs along- the Paikara river and the 
edge of the plateau above, and on the south along the crest of the 
"Wynaad tableland just whore it drops sharply down to the 
steamy lower levels of Malabar. 

The 'Nilgiri district marches on the north with the Mysore 
State, a plateau some 4,000 feet lower which is upheld on either 
side by the Eastern and "Western G-hats and merges by insensible 
degrees into the Wynaad. On tlte west, it joins the Malabar 
"Wynaadj a tract very similar to the South-east Wynaad. South, 
1 it is bounded by the lowlands of Malabar proper and the deep and 
malarious valley of the Bhavani, part of which is in Malabar and 
part in Coimbatore • and its eastern frontier is formed by the latter 
district, the two being separated at the north-eastern corner by the 



PHYSIO AT. TJKSOTUPTIOK. O 

Gajalhatti ( : elephant village ') pass which, Jri^mg a short cut from CHAP. I. 
Mysore to the (Jarnatic plains, was of importance in. the wars (xssfERAr. 
between Mysore and the Bast India Company at the end of the DK6 °_^f_ M0K - 
eighteenth century. 

The plateau, is traditionally divided by its inhabitants into four Tainks and 
tracts called Perauganad ('the country of great Eanga/ the (!hM * 0WIS - 
deity to whom Rangasvami Peak is sacred) on the extreme east ; 
Merknnad {/ the western country'} west of this ; Tddanad ( e the 
country of the Tdda tribe ') on the north ; and Kimdahnad, or the 
higher south-western corner of the plateau formed of the Khndak 
range; the best centre for big game on the Niigiris. But for 
administrative purposes it is arranged into the two taluks of 
Ooonoor, which embraces the first two of the above four divisions, 
and Gofcacarnund, which includes the other two and the strip of 
jungle at the northern foot of the plateau which lias been already 
referred to. The South-east Wynaadand the Ouchterlony Valley 
together form a third taluk known, from its head-quarters, as the 
Gudalur taluk. The former area consists of the three amshanis, 
or parishes, of Gheraukod, Munanad and Nambalakod. 

The only places of any sise in the whole district are the two 
municipalities of Ootacamund (the bead- quarters) and Ooonoor ; 
the latfeer's near neighbour the cantonment of Wellington; the far 
smaller hill-station called Kotagiri ; and the Gudalur already 
mentioned. These and other spots of interest are referred to in 
more detail in Chapter XV below. The chief routes up to the 
plateau are the Sigur ghat on the north, from Mysore ; the 
UudalurgMt on the west, from the Wynaad ; the Kotagiri gh^t 
on the south-east, from Mettupalaiyam ; and, most used of all, 
the Ooonoor ghat ou the south, also from Mettupalaiyam, 
where a road and a rack railway climb a deep ravine side by 
side. These and other roads are referred to more particularly in 
Chapter VII. 

The general appearance of the two very dissimilar, portions of Natural 
which the district is made up —the plateau and the Wynaad — divisions j 
deserves to be described iu some detail. Their soils and agricul- 
ture are referred to in Chapter IV and their climates in 
Chapter IX. 

The plateau is a true tableland, its average height being very 
uniform. But there is not a square mile of level ground m the 
whole of it, its surface being broken by endless undulations which 
in places swell into considerable and distinct ranges. It rises 
most abruptly from the plains below it ; and ou the west, above 
the Ouchterlony Valley and southwards, its sides are often sheer, 



Description. 



4 THE KILGIBTS. 

CHAP. I, bare walls., hundreds pf i'eet in lieiglit and too steep even for 
Gbnbbal trees to obtain a footing on them. Elsewhere dense forest 
covers almost the whole of its slopes. 

It is first of all divided east and west into two fairly equal 
but dissimilar parts by a range of heights running north and 
south of which Bodabfitta ( ( big mountain') is the tallest point. 
This hill, which rises immediately east of Gotacamnnd, is 8,040 
feet above the sea and except the Anainiudi Peak in Travancore 
(8,887 feet) is the highest point south of the Himalayas. The 
prominent observatory which crowns it is referred to on p. 251 
below. From Ootacamimd itself, the importance of this range 
cannot be appreciated ; one is too close to it. But from any 
distant part of the plateau, whether east or west; it is seen to 
stand high above the surrounding country and to rise gradually 
upwards, from the north and the south, to the broad shoulders 
of its topmost height. Its climatic influence is immense ; for 
it shelters the eastern part of the plateau from the south-west 
monsoon and the western part from the north-east rains, giving 
them widely differing seasons. 

East and south of the Dodabetta range, in the Ooonoor taluk 
in fact, the plateau (except round about KodanacL in the north- 
east corner, where the country resembles that further west 
described below) is extensively cultivated by the immigrant 
tribe known as the Badagas. This does not improve its appear- 
ance ; the great forests have mostly been felled and their place 
taken by the poorest low scrab or by fields of miserable cereals 
surrounding the squat red-tiled houses of numerous hamlets ; the 
country is deeply scoured by every shower of rain until the 
infertile red and yellow sub-soil clays are laid bare; and, owing 
to the Badagas* former custom of shifting their cultivation from 
year to year to new patches of land, grass has been prevented 
from getting any firm hold on the denuded Mil-aides. Only on 
the slopes of the plateau (which are too steep for cultivation) 
and in a few isolated Government reserves, does the forest Sourish 
in its virgin beauty. 

West of Dodabetta, however, the Badagas are more rare' 
hardly a field or a village (except the little clusters of huts 
belonging to the pastoral Todas) is to be seen; and the country 
consists of a sea of rounded green hills, rising now and again 
into more prominent heights and ranges, which are covered with 
short grass sprinkled with bright flowers and are often dotted 
with rhododendron trees. These rounded Mils are divided each 
from each by streams or bogs, and nestling in their wrinkles are 



J-BlYSTOAL DESCIIIPTIGW. 5 

"beautiful little woods, locally known as sliolas, the edges of which CHAP. l. 
lave been so sharply defined by years of grazing and (perhaps) Gewekal 
grass fires that they look almost like artificial plantations in some t^™^ 10 * 
English park, and the foliage of "which yearly assumes a wide 
variety of tints — from the brilliant rose-colour of the young shoots 
of certain species in the spring to the deep gi-een of the ripe 
autumn leaves. 

Of the various heights and ranges which rise above the general u, B c hic£ 
level of the plateau, that in the centre, which is crowned by height*. 
Dodabetta, has already been mentioned. Three other noticeable 
points in this great mass are Snowdon, an almost perfect cone 8,299 
feet above the sea ; the Club Hill, 8,030 feet ; and hlk Hill, 8,090 
feet ; which three, with Dodabetta, surround the sheltered valley 
wherein lies Ootacamund. The lake at Ootacamund, it may hers 
be noted, is 7,228 feet above the sea, and St. Stephen's Church 
there 7,429 feet- Southward and eastward of the Dodabetta range 
the country falls rapidly away and the heights are smaller. To the 
south, the chief of them are Devashola ('the divine wood') hill, , 
7,417 feetj prominent from •the bine gum trees which crown it and 
the centre of a coffee- growing area ; further eastj Knlakambai hill 
(kambai means a village of the Irula jungle-tribe) which from its 
top, 5,001 feet, above the sea, commands glorious views across the 
Bhavani valley at its foot to the Lambton's Peak range (so called 
from Colonel William Lambton, r.B.S., Superintendent of the 
Great Trigonometrical Survey) in Ooimbatore district ; east again, 
Hulikal Drug (6,29-1 feet), on the south side of the great ravine 
up which runs the rack railway to Coonoor, and crowned by the 
old fortress referred to on p. 828 ; facing it, on the north eide of 
the ravine, Coonoorbetta or Teneriffe, so prominent from Coonoor 
and 6,894 feet in height ; north of this, about midway between 
Ootacamund and &6tagiri, the Eallia bill (7,375 feet) amidst the 
resorved forest of the same name; near it, Bimhatti lull {b',903 
feet) standing above the deserted sanitarium (p. 825) of that 
name ; and, at the extreme eastern limit of the district, Banga- 
sv&mi Peak, the holiest hill on the plateau. 

"West of the Dodabetta range, the heights are greater and 
form more connected ranges. A short distance west of Oota- 
camund is a group of three which are well known to followers of 
the Ootacamund Hunt; namely, Hecuba (the c Ulnad ; of the 
maps, 7,793 feet) called after a bound which was killed by a fall 
down its sheer side ; Staircase (officially known as Kattakadu, 
7,938 feet) so named from its steepness; and tbe hill above 
e Shaw's Plantation/ marked Kulkudi in the maps, which is 8,002 
feet high. In the south-western corner of the district rise 



6 THE NXLGTHIS. 

OHAV. l. the Kandabs?, a regular range of Mils most prominent from 
tiBNEH.u, Qotacamimd, the chief heights in which are the precipitous Ava~ 
DfiwcairTJOK. i^^g ^[ (p q 845), two peaks oti which, called Kudikadu and 
Kolari on the maps, are 8,497 feet and 8,613 feet above the 
sea and so rank next to Dodabetta; the conical grass-covered 
Derbetfca, or Bear hill, 8,304 feet; and, south o! it, KoKbctta, 
8,182 feet. 

This Kundah range forma a -kind of run to that side of the 
plateau, rising high above the general level, and it is continued on 
the north by the great line of peaks just south of the Guchtcrlony 
Vnllov, the chief of which arc Pichalhetta (8.3-J-8 feet), Nilgiri 
Peak (S.118 feet), -which was long held to be unolimbablo, and 
the sheer Mukarti Peak (8,380 feet) the precipitous side of which, 
whence the souls of iupu and buffaloes are believed by the Todas 
to leap together into the nether world, is such a landmark from 
Ootacanmnd. This last is referred to again on p. 354. It 
com mauds the most impressive view in all the plateau.. 

The Wyuaatl, ^ ae general appearance of the Wyftaad differs root and branch 
from that of the plateau. Viewed from the western edge of the 
latter it seems to be an almost uniform expanse of gently undu- 
lating jungle, broken only by the patches of brighter green which 
mark the paddy-fiats in its numerous swamps. But when the 
traveller gets down to it, he finds that its undulations are very 
considerable, some of them running up into small hill-ranges, 
and that the jungle differs widely in different parts. On the 
north are the heavy forests of Benne and Mudumalai, which 
formerly contained splendid teak and blackwood. Bound 0-udalur 
the jungle consists mainly of clumps of bamboo, interlaced with 
giant' creepers and rendered almost impassable by the thick under- 
growth of -the hateful lantana, bearing blossoms of half a dozen 
hues. Scattered trees fight doggedly for life amid the tangle. 
To the south-west the growth becomes more open, low hills 
covered with coarse grass aaid dwarf date palms rise above it, and 
the bamboo and lantana giye place to small forest trees. Bound 
the old gold-mining centres of Devala and Pandalur in this comer 
of the taluk are hillocks covered with short, sweet pasture and 
little dark woods which remind one of the Kundabs. The road 
which runs through these two villages to the Malabar Wynaad 
commands magnificent views of the low country and the 
Ouchterlony Valley (that of this latter from near N&dgam is a 
finer prospect than any on the plateau itself) but the other 
main routes lead through* interminable jungle with no outlook 
whatever, and the traveller feels like a mouse in a corn-field. 



PHYSICAL DESOKIL'TION. I 

The Wynaad Mils are naturally much less in actual height than CHAP. 1. 
those on the plateau, but several of them are 'prominent enough, Gbuwbal 
the general level of the country "being- so uniform that pealts o'f BSC ffIf 0N ' 
any size stand out noticeably. The biggest are Maruppanmadi 
hill (5,014 feet), the highest point in a range which crosses 
the country from north to south and parts of which contain so 
much magnetic iron ore as to render the compass useless in 
their neighbourhood; the Needle Rock in the same range— 
a, hare, brown, razor-backed mass of gneiss which is almost sheer 
on one side; the Hadiabetta hill (3,788 feet) above Pandalur; 
and the Oulur hill on the northern boundary, 3,76b' feet above 
the sea. 

The Nilgiri plateau is drained by hundreds of streams, most Biveraana 
of which are perennial and all of which are beautiful. Between w 
almost every pair of undulations runs some rivulet or other, and 
the larger of these, with their alternate quiet pools and chatter- 
ing rapids, resemble the burns on a Scotch moor in everything 
except their lack of fish. In some half a doaen instances they 
combine to form streams which may be dignified by the name 
of rivers, and all of these eventually fall into either the Moyar on 
the north or the Bhavani on the south and so : eventually., into 
the Can very. Their conservation is thus of interest to the owners 
of the Tanjore paddy-fields and projects are now on fuofc to 
form irrigation reservoirs high up the Bhavani valley and near 
DannayaTcankottai . 

The map shows the courses of these streams better than any 
quantity of written description. Beginning on the north of the 
plateau the first of the larger ones is the Sigiir river (so called 
from the village past which it ilows at the foot of the hills) 
which raab down to the Moyar alongside the Sigur ghat. It 
rises in the slopes above the Ootacamund lake, flows through this 
latter, is joined further down by the well-known c Sandy Nullah 
stream' and eventually forms the Kalhatti falls, i 70 feet high, 1 
facing the Kalhatti travellers' bungalow on the Sigur ghat. 

In the north-east corner of the plateau, a river (sometimes 
called the Mndnkadu stream) drains into the Moyar the rainfall 
of the Orange Valley, a deep ravine so named from the wild 
orange trees which used io abound there and an extremely 
popular spot in the days before Kotagiri and Dxmhatti, which are 
close to it, had fallen out of fashion. < The Old Forest Banger/ 2 

1 This and the heights of tho other fall* referred to below were /tseartnined 
many yours ago by Captain Freeth, of the Bevermo Surrey. 

- The Old Forest Rangvr, by Major Walter Campbell, 3rd edn., London, 1858 
p. 375. ' - 



o THE NIL0ZRI8. 

CHAP, i. fov example^ goes iitfo raptures about, it and declares : i The 
DiSki?"- ^ ratl §' e Valley ' 'There is perfume in the very name ! Oar old 

— „ * " heart warms, and a delicious languor steals over our senses, as we 
recall to mind the silent, "balmy, incense -breathing inorn when 
first we trod the flowery shades of that enchanting spot. . , . 
It seemed to us the abode of peace and innocence ; a place for 
young- lovers to walk hand in hand, culling the golden fruit and 
twining into bridal wreatht; the snow-white blossoms which made 
the very air love-sick with their fragrance.' The valley is a deep 
indentation, averaging not more than 4,500 feet above the sea, 
shut in by high hills, its temperature is thus much warmer than 
that of the*; higher plateau, and this peculiarity and the richness 
of its soil render its' vegetation more nearly tropical than that of 
any other part of the Nilgiri hills. Oranges, limes, pomegranates, 
jack-trees and mangoes still flourish there, but the inroads of 
Badaga cultivation have of late years resulted in the valley being 
stripped of much of its forest and most of its charm. 

From near Kotagiri runs southwards the Gfathada halla, which 
at * St. Catherine's fall ' makes a leap of some 250 feet (the 
second highest waterfall in the district) into a considerable chasm 
and thence hurries down to the Ooonoor river near Me'ttup&laiyam. 
In the lower part of its course it is known as the Kallfir ( c rocky 
river ' ), and. the suspension road-bridge and railway girder-bridge 
across it are well known to travellers up the Coonoor ghat. St, 
Catherine's fall is named after the wife of Mr. M. D. Coekbuni, 
M.CS, She and her husband were some of the first Europeans 
to settle in Kotagiri and they lie buried side by side in the cemetery 
there. A path runs to the head of the fall from that station, but 
to get a good view of the water one has to clamber down the side 
of the ravine. A distant but picturesque glimpse of it is obtained 
from the Dolphin's Nose rook near Ooonoor. 

The Ooonoor liver, which races down the ravine up which 
the Ooonoor ghat is carried, is principally made up of the Ooonoor 
stream 3 which drains the basin wherein Ooonoor and Wellington, 
are built, and of the Kateri stream which rises in the Kateri and 
Ke*ti valleys alongside. The ' Kateri falls ; on the: latter, which 
drop about 180 feet sheer, are a favourite point for excursions from 
Ooonoor and Ootacamund and have now been utilized to generate 
electricity to drive the machinery at the Aravanktid Cordite 
factory referred to on p. 312 below. 

The Kulakambai stream, which drains the oomiivy round 
about the hill of that name already mentioned, is mvicih smaller, 
but is of interest as forming the highest on broken fall (400 feet) 
on tiie plateau. 



PHYSICAL BESCSIPTIOK. if 

West of it, the Kuudah river, flowing in a very deep, steep- CHAP. I. 
sided ravine, separates the Itundahs from the* rest of the plateau Gkkkkai, 
and collects the streams which drain the well-known. Nanjanad Kr,c ^J I0R '« 
valley just south-west of Ootaoamnnd, the beautiful Emerald "ealley 
farther west, the valley (nearly parallel to this last) which fronts 
the Avalanche travellers' "bungalow and runs down from the 
Avalanche hill already mentioned, and other rivulets on the 
eastern flank of the Khmdah range. Its upper waters are called 
in old papers the Purti stream, from the village of that namo 
near its "banks, and just below their junction with the Avalanche 
stream Mr. Mclvor built the hapless bund which goes by his 
name and is referred to again on p. 352 below, 

In the south-west corner of the plateau rises the Billitha'da 
halla, one of the most charming of all its many streams. This 
drains the western slopes of the Avalanche hill and much of the 
country between, them and Sisp&ra, and is one of the chief sources 
of the Bhavani itself. 

The extreme west of the plateau is drained by the largest of 
all its rivers, the Paikara.* This rises on the bleak slopes of 
Mukarti Peak , receives from the east the Krurmund and Parson's 
valley streams (the latter of which, see p. 43, has been stocked 
with rainbow trout), flows past the Paikara travellers' bun- 
galow, where it is bridged by the road to Gudalur and swarms 
with earp, winds among the low hills searching for a way down 
to the low country, and at last plunges through a steep and narrow 
valley by two fine falls, popular picnic-spots for Ootacamund 
folk, of which the upper is 180 feet high and the lower •!{){) feet. 
Finer than either, however, is the series of great leaps m which 
the river flings itself over the almost sheer side of the plateau 
down into the Wynaad a short distance further on. The dull 
roar 0$ these ca.n be heard as far away as the Gudalur-Mysore 
road, four miles off as the crow flies, and from that point, ! frozen 
hy distance/ they look like some great ice ladder laid against the 
steep wall of the plateau. Thence the Paikara winds in a more 
leisurely way in and. out through deep hollows in the dense, steamy 
Wynaad jungles, suddenly turns eastwardSj drops over a con- 
siderable fall near Tippak&du on the Gudalii'-Mysore road, 
changes its name to Moyar, passes on down the ' Mysore ditch, J 
a curious narrow trench with steep sides which is very prominent 
from several points near Ootacamund — the Oonnemara Koad for 
example — -and eventually ;joms the Bhavani at the eastern foot of 
the plateau.. 

On the plateau, the Todas hold this river sacred. Ho pregnant 
T6da woman dare cross it and the men will neither use its watgr 



10 



THE NILQIRIS, 



.CHAP. I- forany purpose nor even touch it except, when compelled to ford 

(Jehkrat. it. Then, hating Crossed it, they turn. and make it obeisance. 

DKOTrwN. £ lvtm if tb0}T cw ^ it hy the bpi(lge at the Paiia f ra bungalow they 

take their right hands from under their mantles as n sign, of 
reverence. 3 

The Soath-oast Wynaad is also plentifully watered. Springs 
rise inmost of its numerous swamps and combine to form streams, 
locally known as poi/as, which meander in and out of its 
jungles and for the most part eventually find thou- way either into 
the Paikara or the PandL. This latter river rises in the Guchterlony 
Valley and even there is of considerable volume. It eventually 
flows down the ghats through a deep ravine and joins the Beyporc 
river of Malabar. 
Gkologv. The standard account of tha geology of the plateau is that 

The plateau, published by Mr. H. F. Blanford. of the Geological Survey of 
India in 1859- 2 The hills consist of a great mass o£ foliated 
gneissose (not granitic) rocks, of the class now termed charnock- 
ite 3 with a few late? dykes of oKvine-norites, from an inch to 
ten feet in widfch 3 which are well seen at Goonoor. 

Three principal systems of faults occur, and these afford 
evidence of the manner in winch the plateau was originally formed. 
The first of them, to which was due the formation of the Eastern 
G-bitSj has an. east- north-east direction, and to it belong the 
great faults with a down throw to the south-east which have 
produced the Eastern Q-hats and the south-eastern escarpment of 
the Nilgiris, and likewise those with a north-western down throw 
which have formed the great escarpments on the north-west aide 
of the ICundahs and at Nadnvattam, just above G-udalur. The 
second of the three systems of faults runs nearly at right angles 
to the first, in a west-north-west direction, and comprises the 
Western Ghi/ts, the escarpment on the north-cast mde of t\w 

1 Mr. Thurston in Museum Bulletin, iv, Ko. 3, 1. 

B The earliest paper on the subject is that contributed m JS3K by Dr. P. M, 
THanm, Snrgeon. to tha then Governor, Sir Frederick Adam, to M.J.L.S., iv, 
pp. 241-90. It contains a map and a sketch of tin- ' Devil's C-ii>,\, ' near Sispai'a. 
This w followed ia I8-U by same observations in the Report on the Medical 
Topography of the hills published by Government in that year j in 1S-A7 by 
eferfown remarks in Major Ouohterlouy'e report, on tlio survoy of the district 
(M.J.Ij.S.j k v) ; in 1853 by Mr. H. F. Blauford's fuller account, in YoL I of the 
Memoirs of the Greol. Surv. of India., which contains a map, two sketches of Hie 
country and several drawings of geological peculiarities , and in 1861 by two 
papers by Major Congreve in M..T.L.8,, xx«. In Vol, XXX of the Recarda of 
the Oeol Survey aro two notes by Mr,T. H. Holland on Die alinnc-norite dykatt 
of Ooonoor. The jrold of the SouOi-aast Wynaad hau a s^parahe literature of 
its own, which is referred to later. _ 



PHYSICAL DXSOItlPSIOH. l! 

Kundahs facing Ootacamund and that from St, Catherine's i'alls CHAP, i, 
to near Kotagin. The third of the systems is that to which Gkologv, 
belong the northern boundary of the plateau and the short 
southern escarpment of the Kundahs. 

Thus the first great disturbance which seems to have occurred 
was the upheaval of the Eastern and Western Ghats and of the 
Mysore plateau "between them, and the second was that which 
raised the Nilgiri plateau itself, the area affected being partly- 
bounded by pre-existing lines of fracture. The geological periods 
during which these movements occurred are not ascertainable, 
there being no sedimentary rocks to give any clue to them. 

Considerable reason, exists for the belief that the whole 
of the plateau had been previously submerged by the sea. Kot 
only does it consist chiefly of the undulations and rounded hills 
which usually result from marine action, but in several places 
escarpments may be traced which; though now partly cut up 
into ravines and rounded spurs by the denudation resulting from 
the heavy rainfall, were apparently Formed by oceans washing 
their bases. On the south-eastern side of the Dodabetta range, 
overlooking the Keti valley, is one of these, and another occurs 
to the north and north-west of Wellington, where, says Mr. 
Blanford, c the projecting terminations of several spurs present 
a pfcrikiiig" resemblance to the rocky headlands of parts of the 
south coast of England.' Several others might be instanced. 

The denudation and alteration of the surface of the plateau by 
the action of rain has been very great— especially on the Knndahs, 
which receive the full force of the south-west monsoon. The 
deep ravines by which the chief streams of the country escape to 
the plains below (for example, the valleys of the Kallar, Coonoor, 
Kuiadah and Paikara rivers) have been chiefly formed by the 
action of these streams themselves, and everywhere the hill-sides 
are cut into gullies and nullahs. Many of the interior valleys 
(notably that traversed by the upper waters of the Paik&ra) seem 
to have existed even before the plateau was upheaved, as they 
contain largo beds of alluvium deposited by the streams which 
now drain them. They appear to have originally consisted of 
lakes, all outlet for their streams being closed by natural embank- 
ments. The water in them rose gradually until it overtopped 
these banks and theiij flowing over them, in course of time cut 
the narrow ravines through which tho si reams now escape. There 
are at present no natural lakes in the district, though artificial 
ones have been made at Ootacauiaud. at Burnfoot and Lovedalg 
near by. and at Wellington. 



12 SHE NILGtBIS. 

CHAP. 1, The faces*of the cliffs have "been altered by the heat of the 

Geology. sjm a l m o S t as much as by the action of rain. This heat causes the 
outer layers oi rock to expand rapidly and thus to become detached 
from the cooler underlying mass, and they often eventually split off 
in enormous slabs slightly curved to the form of the hill-side. 
Traces of this action may be clearly seen on the escarpment ol the 
TDodabetta range 'which overlooks the Keti valley and has already 
been mentioned. After rain, considerable landslips are occasioned 
in this manner aided by the action of the water on the decomposed 
hill-sides. The principal instance within recent memory is the 
' Avalanche ' referred to on p. 345 below. 

The intrusive rocks ol tbe plateau include the olivine- norifces 
already mentioned and a few unimportant cases of basaltic trap in 
the north and on the western edge of the Kundahs. 
Minerals The only minerals of economic value onthe plateau are building - 

ero * stone and laterite. The former is more expensive than brick — bad 

as are the Mil bricks — and is consequently little used. The same 
applies to the laterite, which, is moroov-er very local in its distribu- 
tion and is found only in small patches. Some of the anoient cairns 
referred to in the next chapter arc constructed of this material. 
Wo limestone exists, and all the lime required for building has to be 
brought up from the plains. Quarta veins occur, but contain no 
gold or other metals in sufficient quantities to make them worth 
extraction. Ancient gold-workings may be traced along the 
banliH of the Lovedale streams, in the valley just south of Bishops- 
down at Ootacamund, at Fairlawns (see p. 356), in the $Fan;janiid, 
valley, and from Parson's valley (where they are very notice- 
able) at intervals as far as M&karti Peak. They are sunk in a 
reef of conglomerate running in schist, instead of the usual 
gneiss, which seems to pass straight across this part of the 
plateau. During the gold boom of 1880-82 mines were started 
near Horash61a, 1-| miles west of Kotagiri, between Kotagiri and 
Coonoor, and in the latter place ; but none of them met with 
any success. Peat is dug for fuel from the bogs round the towns. 
Kaolin is common, especially in Ootacamund itself, but it appears 
to contain too much iron to be of use for making- pottery. Ochre- 
ous clays (white, yellow and pink) are found and are employed 
for colour-washing houses. At the 1869 Exhibition at Ootaca- 
mund, oups manufactured from them at the Madras School of 
Arts, and a flower vase made from the white kaolin, were shown. 
Iron (as hematite, specular iron and magnetic ore) also occurs 
frequently in small quantities, notably above Horashola, on a 
ipur of Bodabetta overlooking the dhobis' village at Ootacamund 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. IS 

and at a spot thi'ec miles east of Wellington. 1 , It has never been CHAP. L 
•worked, and the Kotas, the irons miths of the hills, get their raw Okologv. 
material from the low country. Mr. Sullivan, the pioneer of the ' 

English settlements on tbe plateau, showed thrse people how to 
extract the metal from the local ores, but they declined to make 
the attempt themselyes, urging the stereotyped excuse that their 
forefathers had never done so. 

The fundamental rocks of the South-east Wynaad differ Tin* Wyimad, 
sharply from those of the plateau, being typical archeeaa biotifco 
and homblendic gneisses, with intrusive bands of charncckite 
and much younger biotite-grauite. pegmatite and basic dole-rite 
dykes. 

In some of the pegmatites good rtiby mica of fair size is Minerals 
obtained, and this mineral has been mined at Oherambadi, on ^^ ; mica ' 
the western frontier of the district, by Messrs. Peirce, Leslie & 
Oo. of Calicut and the Indian Glenrock (Wynaad) Co. The 
output in 1905 was some 5,000 lb. The magnetic iron in tho 
Mamppanmadi range bas already been mentioned. 

A series of gold-bearing quartz reefs strike across the Wynaad «'>W ; early 
gneiss. That they contain gold has been known for perhaps two PXil oratl0118 * 
centuries, and as far back as 1793 3 the authorities in Malabar were 
requested by the then G-overnor of Bombay (in which Presidency 
Malabar and the Wynaad were at that; time included) to send 
him all the information which could be collected upon the matter. 
A similar request was made by the Madras Government in 1828, 
and in 1881 the Collector reported on the subject at length. He 
said that the privilege of collecting gold in the Wynaad and in tbe 
Nilambur valley of Malabar just below it had been farmed out for 
the preceding 40 or 50 years and that the iu«tal was chiefly 
obtained by washing the soil in stream-beds, paddy-Hats and hill- 
sides. The process was as follows .- The earth was generally put 
into a shallow wooden tray., shaped like a turtle's shell and called 
a murriya. This was submerged in some running stream just 

J Fai'thec details as in locality, etc., will be found in Dr. Bend's paper 
already quoted, and in Surgeon "Edward Balfour's Report en the Iron ores of 
Madras Q&ndxaa, 1555) , 176 S. 

- Seo the history of the raiiiter (compiled from official eouroet) in M.J.L.S., 
sir (18-i7), 154-81. Other papers relating to the geology unci gold of the Wynaad 
arc Dr. King's preliminary note on the gold-fields in Records, Geo!. Surv., India, 
Tin, 29 (1873) ; hie note on the progress* there, ibid., xi, 233(1878); Mr. E. 
Brotig'h. Smyth's roport o£ 1879 on tliu gold mines (Madras Government PrceB, 
i880); Mr. D.E.W. Iioighfccm'8 Tn&ian Gold-mining Industry (Higginbotham, 
18SS) j and Messrs. Hayden and Hatch's paper on the fields in Meraoirs> Geo!. 
Sbxv., India, xxxiii, pfc, 3 (1S91). This last contains nine plates aad a detailed 
bibliography o£ tlie subject. 



H THE WELSIKIS. 

OEAP. l. enough to cause the "water to flow over its edges and was then 
Gboiosy. rocked with one h&ml while the oarth in it was gently stirred with 
the other until all the mud was washed away and nothing left hut 
a black sand containing particles of iron and gold. The murriya 
was next taken out of the stream, one end of it was slightly tipped 
up, and. water was gently poured upon its contents until the gold 
and iron were separated from the sand. The gold was then 
collected hy rubbing it- with a grain or two of :nercury and the 
latter was afterwards driven off from the amalgam so made hy the 
primitive method of wrapping the amalgam in a piece of tobacco 
leaf and heating it between two lumps of burning charcoal, 
Sometimes a long trough, called a pdii, was used to wash away the 
greater part of the earth, and the operation Was only finished in 
the murHya. 

About the same time that the Collector wrote this report, a 
Swiss watchmaker of Camianore named H. L. Huguenin petitioned 
the Governor (Mr. S. R. Lushington) to assist him in exploring 
the mineral resources of Malabar and the Wynaad ; and Lieutenant 
Woodley Mcoison, of the 49th jST.I. ? with a havildar's party 
of Pioneers, was deputed to assist him. They began their search 
in 18B1 in the neighbourhood of the Devada already mentioned, 
but were both quickly prostrated with fever. Descending to the 
Nilambur valley, they found a regular set of mines, with shafts 
from ten to fifty feet deep, worked "by 500 or 600 Mappilla slaves 
belonging to the Nilambur Tirumulpad (the chief local land- 
owner) who were required to produce a barley-corn weight of 
gold per man per diem. At a place called c Ooopal, ' .further 
down the valley and near the present Kdavaniia, were more mines 
worked by Mappillas, and close under the Wynaad plateau wore 
very many others. In spite of constant fever., which on one 
occasion nearly cost him his life, and the determined obstruction 
of the natives, who misled him with false reports and filled up the 
shafts to prevent their examination, Lieutenant Nicolson reported 
in such enthusiastic terms upon the capabilities of the mines that 
Oovernment were induced to order some machinery and pumps to 
work them. Later on, however, a committee which was appointed 
to enquire more calmly into the question threw cold water on the 
whole matter and even on Mcolaon's proposal that the Wynaad, 
which clearly contained the matrix of the gold found in the low 
country, should be explored. In 1833, therefore, Government 
dropped the matter ; and it slept for over thirty years. 

In, the sixties of the last century, when the Wynaad had began 
to be opened up for coffee estates, the traces of the old gold- 
workings attracted the attention of the planters, some of whom had 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 15 

seen the Australian gold- fields. There were, the old walla built for CHAP. X, 

c ground-sluicing/ the remains of the channels led along the Urology. 

hill-sides to wash the earth, great heaps of. rubble, the hollows in ' 

the rocks where quartz; had "been "broken up, the stones with -which 

it had been, pounded, and. scores of primitive tunnels and shafts 

(some of them 70 ft. deep) burrowing into the slopes of the hills. 

These last are very frequent in the high wooded hill called 

Shuliniaki, a short distance south of Ddvala. A few Kurumbas 

and Paniyans still subsisted partly by working for gold , though the 

higher wages obtainable on the estates had well nigh killed the 

industry. 

Prospecting naturally followed the discovery of these signs 
of gold, and in 1874 was started the Alpha Gfold Mining Company 
(nominal capital, sis lakhs), which began operations in a valley 
about a mile and a half south of Devala. One of its principal 
reefs was the well known Skull Beef, so called because the 
remains of a native miner were found in one of the old workings 
on it. 

In the next year Government deputed Br. W. King of the 
Geological Survey to examine the country. His report was favour- 
able. He said : — 

' My observations so .Ear appear to show that quartz-crushing 
should be a success, in the Nambalakdd amsham at any rate. Here 
there are eighteen reefs which are more or less anriferous in them- 
selves, or as to their leaders . . . With machinery and modern 
appliances, the reefs should pay even if only 3 dwta. of gold are got 
always from the ton of quartz. The average proportion of gold for 
fifteen trials on different reefs is at the rate of seven dwts. to the ton j 
and it is almost certain that many of these would have given a better 
outturn, could more perfect crushing apparatus have been ueed at the 
time.' 

Two small companies were started in the nest year or two, 
and in 1878 Dr. King again visited the field. By this time 
more reefs had been opened out and more extensive sampling- 
was possible, and his views became less sanguine. 

In 1879 j however, the Government of India employed Mr. Brouglx 
Mr. Brough Smyth (for many years Secretary for. Mines in feportm,on 
Yietoria and held to be the greatest authority on the subject in it. 
Australia) to examine the Wynaad reefs ; and his report^ written 
in October 187'Jj \vas } to say the ieast 5 distinctly encouraging. 
He discussed in detail the value o£ a great number of the known 
reels, most of which crop out in the country traversed by the road 
from Kidgani to Ghe'rainbadi ; gave the results of assays made 
by himself and others which ranged from nil to no les§ than 



16 



THK HJXGIBIS. 



CHAP. I. 



The hoom of 
1SS0, 



204 03. of gold to the ton of ore ; considered that low-grade ores, 
running even as low as 3 dwts. to the ton, could "be worked at a 
profit ; and concluded :— 

( The reefs are very numerous and they are more than of tlie 
average thickness of those found in other countries ; they are of great 
longitudinal extent, some being traceable by their outcrops for several 
mileB ; they are strong and persistent and highly auriferous at an 
elevation of less than 500 feet above the sea, and they can be traced 
thr-nce upwards to a height of nearly S,000 feet ; near them gold can 
ho washed out of almost every dish that is dug; the proportion of 
gold in some of the soils and reefs in the neighbourhood of "Devala is 
large ; and, the country presenting facilities for prosecuting mining 
operations at the smallest coat, it must bo apparent to all who have 
given attention to this question that sooner or later gold-mining will 
be established as an important industry in Southern India. 1 

In another place he wrote ; — 

' It is not unlikely however that the first attempts wiH fail. 
Speculative undertakings having for their object the making of 
money bj buying and selling shares are commenced invariably by 
appointing secretaries and managers at high salaries and the 
printing of a prospectus. This is followed by the erection of costly 
and not seldom -wholly unsuitable machinery ; no attempts are made 
to open the mine ; and then, after futile endeavours to obtain gold, 
and a waste of capital, it is pronounced and believed that gold-mining 
on a large scale will never prove remunerative.' 

This latter prophecy was fulfilled to the letter : the former was 
altogether falsified. 

The result of this sanguine report was the farcical boom of 
1880. 1 The stock markets were ripe for any speculation, however 
wild. Low rates of return on British Government stocks, a 
paucity of foreign loans, flourishing trade and an unusual scarcity 
of gold all contributed to make miscellaneous enterprises more 
attractive j while coffee-planting' was already on the down-grade and 
owners of estates containing reefs were only too glad to seize a 
chance of disposing of them at a profit. 

The mania began in December 1879; when a company with a' 
capital of iJlOO,O0O was launched ; and hi the nest nineteen months 
the number of companies floated in England amounted to no less 
than 41 with a capital of over fire millions sterling, while daring 
the same period six companies with a total capital of -i^dljOOO 
were also started in India itself. Of the English companies, 33 
went to allotment and the sum obtained by them for investment in 
the industry amounted nominally to iJ4 ? 05O,0O0. Of this, however 

1 The acoounc of it which foJUnrs is chiefly iab*'» from Mr. Leighton's 
JMiHipWet already quoted, 



PHYSICAL mESOHXPTION. 17 

£■'>, 3 75,500 was allotted lor payment for the land in which the GHAP, I, 
supposed mines were located — the prices of tliis ranged from £70 £eglogy. 
to mo less than £2,600 per acre— so that the sum left for working ~~~"' 
expenses was not more than ,£1,674,500. Mr. Brough Smyth 
himself was appointed manager of two of the companies, hut 
retired on the ground of ill-health in 1882, when the tide had 
begun to turn. 

Such, at first, was the confidence of the public in the rent are 
that by May 1880 the shares of the concerns launched at the 
beginning of that year were quoted at 50, 75 and even 100 per 
cent, premium, though the reefs had not been opened out, tho 
machinery had not been shipped and in most cases the mining 
staff had not even arrived on the ground. The sensational 
reports which the companies' agents in India, the so-called 
( mining experts ' and the financial wire-pullers afterwards cabled 
Home operated to maintain these absurdly inflated prices for 
more than a year. c The whole mountain is worth putting through 
the stamps,' said one wire ; ' four feet of magnificent reef, exceed- 
ingly rich in gold/ declared another ; ' grand discovery ; Needle 
rock reef turning out very rich, heavy gold/ chimed in a third. 
At the companies' meetings in X.ondon, Directors declared that 
an all-round yield of an ounce a ton was a moderate and calm 
estimate, and prophesied dividends at rates running up to 50 
per cent. It was in vain that respectable journals, like the 
Economist and the Statist, deplored the prevailing recklessness ; 
while the fever lasted, the most earnest warnings passed un- 
heeded. Nearly every planter in the Wynaad began to look up 
the reefs on his estate ; ' mining- experts ' abounded (one of 
these was a quondam baker and another a retired circus* clown) 
who reported on properties which sometimes they had never 
seen (and on one s at least, which, did not even exist !) and were 
often promised a percentage of the price realized; and hordes 
of financial agents practised the ancient game of drawing up 
attractive prospectuses, inducing the public to subscribe, forcing 
up the value of the shares, selling out their own at the top of the 
market and then hastily quitting the wreck. Prom little clusters 
of native hats, Devala and Pandalur blossomed suddenly into 
busy mining centres with rows of substantial buildings, post and 
telegraph offices., a hotel, a store for the valuable quartz which 
was to be extracted, a saloon, and numerous mining-captains' 
bungalows perched on. commanding sites. Pandalur even boasted 
a well-attended race-meeting on a new course laid out round the 
paddy-flat there, and the head- quarters of the Head Assistant 
Magistrate were hastily transferred to this flourishing locality, 
8 



io THE KILGXiUS, 

CHAP. I. But actual crushing was slow to begin, and in May 1881 

Geolohy. confidence "began to droop and tie prices of the shares were 
" "barely maintained. Early in Juno, however, the market received 

a sudden reviving impetus owing to the announcement in London 
that one of the principal mines had "began crashing and thai; the 
cabled result showed 4 oz. of gold to the ton. Feverish excite- 
ment followed;, the Alpha Company's £1 share went up to £15, 
those of several other ventures changed hands at -100 and 500 
per cent, premium, and within a week the appreciation in the 
value of Wynaad mining scrip had amounted to half a million 
sterling. 

Then came the collapse. In the first week of July the 
manager of the mine in question explained that the 4 02. was the 
yield of one ton only ; and. that the nest 19 tons bad given barely 
2 dwts Shares dropped with a run 200 and 300 per cent. — never 
to recover. Within another year fifteen of the 38 "English com- 
panies had passed into the hands of the liquidator. 

The yields obtained by the others were so poor (up to the first 
quarter of 1883. 3,597 tons had yielded only 9,641 dwts. of gold, 
or an average of 2*7 dwts. per ton) that operations were gradually 
suspended. One mine had spent £70,000 in three years and 
had only produced 7 oz. of gold. The Phcenis mine was kept 
open for some time, and. is said to have yielded sufficient gold to 
pay working expenses ; but it was eventually shut down by order 
of Government owing to the frequency of accidents. Work was 
also carried on in a desultory way in the Alpha Gold Mining 
Company's property until about 1893. 

In 1901-03 a local syndicate re-opened some of the reefs on 
the PhoDnbe, Balcarres and Bichmond properties in the hope that 
newer methods of treating low-grade ores (such as the cyanide 
and ehloriuation processes) might render the working of the 
mines profitable ■ but it eventually abandoned the attempt. The 
Wynaad ore is not only capriciously distributed but is also 
intractable, containing much pyrites, sulphur and arsenic, all of 
whioh hinder the recovery of its gold. 

About the same time, under the orders of the Government of 
India, Mr. Hayden of the Geological Survey and Br. Hatch, (he 
Survey's mining specialist, made an examination of certain, of the 
mines to test the belief { undoubtedly still current in. many 
quarters that the previous failures were in large part duo to 
unsuitable appliances as well as to inefficient supervision.' After 
many trials, the Phoenix and Alpha mines were selected for 
detailed experiments and 3,fi00 feet of the old drives were re- 
opened. Samples were taken systematically every ten feet along 



physical B^scniFtioir. 19 

the veins, across their whole width, and assayed in Calcutta ; CHAP. T„ 
174 samples from the Alpha mine gave an average of 1"G dwfcs. G-eologjt, 
of gold per ton for an average width, of 4*3 feet, and 93 samples 
from tlie Phoenix gave an average of 2 dwts. for an average 
width of 5*'± feet. The conclusion arrived at was that 'it is clear 
that, with the methods at present available for the treatment 
of low-grade ores there is no hope of gold-mining in Wynaad 
becoming remunerative.' 

The Indian Glen rock (Wynaad) Go. is at present (1906) con- 
ducting a further systematic examination of the old native and 
other workings on the Grlenrock property just west of Pandalur, 
and round Nellialam the natives are said still to wash gold on a 
small scale ; hut elsewhere on the field all mining is dead and 
nothing remains "but melancholy relics of past activity. 

At Pandalur three or four houses } the old store, and traces of 
the race-course survive ; at Devjila are a grave or two ; topping 
many of the little hills are derelict bungalows and along their 
contours run grass-grown roads; hidden under thick jungle are 
heaps of spoil, long-forgotten tunnels used only by she-bears and 
panthers expecting an addition to their families, and lakhs' 
worth ol rusting machinery which was never erected ; while along 
the great road to Yayitri, which now, except for the two white 
rats worn by the infreqaent carts, is often overgrown with 
grass, lies more machinery which never even reached ita destina- 
tion. Moreover, most of the numerous coifee- estates which 
formerly bordered this road all the way from Gudalur to Gheram- 
bcidi were acquired by the gold companies and thenceforth utterly 
neglected ; and now not a single one of them all is kept lap. 
They have all gone back to jungle and are covered with such a 
tangle of lantern and forest that it is hardly possible to make out 
their former boundaries. Thus the coffee industry is dead and the 
mining industry which killed it is dead also ; and this side of the 
"Wynaad is now perhaps the most mournful scene of disappointed 
hopes in all the Presidency. 

The Nilgiri hills, having a rainfall of less than 40 inches on Flora. 
some of the driest parts of the eastern side, and of 200 inches on G-eneral 
the moistest parts of the western slopes, possess, as might be 
expected, a very varied and interesting flora, exceedingly numer- 
ous in genera and species. 1 "With the exception of the dense 3 
evergreen, moist forests on the western sides, the whole area has 

1 The account, which follows was contributed, to the original Disti ict Mam&ai 
by Col. U. H. Be&dume, the well-known botanist and Conservator of Forests, The 
BOientiiic ■nomenclature, both here and in Appx. I to this chapter, has been 
kindly collected by Mr. B. Thurstor, Sapatiatemlenb of the Madras Museum. 



remarks. 



20 



tht: nilgiris. 



Oie a p. I. 



Botanical 
divisions of 
the hills. 



Deciduous 

forests a-a. 



"been well explored by "botanists, and it is probable that there are 
few plants now boWiically unknown on tlie plateau and the 
deciduous forests of the slopes. But the heavy forests of the west- 
ern sides are of immense extent, very difficult to get at, and very 
feverish at the lower elevations ; and as they contain no habit- 
ations or supplies of any sort, the visits of botanists to them 
have been generally of a flying nature. The trees in these tracts 
attain an immense sise, being often 200 or 250 feet in height, 
so that it is no- easy matter to obtain their flowers ; and. there can 
be no doubt that a good many andescribed species still await 
the botanist. Some of the trees flower in the cold season, some 
in. the hot weather, and some in the rains, wHle somo few are in 
bloom all the year round; but it is believed that the majority 
flower between February and the middle of May, which is 
the most unhealthy time of the year. The shrubs, creepers 
and. herbaceous plants in these tracts are pretty well known, 
but a careful search at any season of the year would undoubtedly 
be rewarded by some .novelties. 

Botanically we may divide the hills into four tracts, each 
having a flora of its own, of which vei'y few species encroach 
upon the other tracts. The working of the various forests in 
them by the Forest department is referred to in Chapter V. 

First tract. — The deciduous forests of the slopes. — These are of 
much the same character as the dry forests of the lessor hills and 
plains of the Presidency. The trees are all more or less decidu- 
ous in the dry months of January, February and March, but 
the forests are never entirely bare, like the woods and forests in 
Europe in. the winter. Many trees, such as the Wythrmas, Butea 
frondosn, the three Dalbergias, Schleichera irifuga, Siereosperm-wm 
ceybearpum, Qdim Wodier, Terminated bclerica and others, burst 
into flower in February and leaf themselves rapidly afterwards 
before many other trees have finished shedding their leaves ; but 
still these tracts have a very forlorn appearance at this season, 
and Are often sweeps through them— greatly to the disgust of 
the Forest department. Here a YQiy great proportion of the 
tropical trees of this Presidency are to be met with and, about 
the lowest portions, very many of the tropical shrubs and weeds 
which do not belong at all to our alpine flora, such as tho weeds 
amongst Gapparids, the small milkworts [JPolygahs), the herbs 
and shrubs of Mahaeem % the Grewiasumd herbs of Tiliacem, 
Zi&yphuB (several species), Yitis (several species), Oanh'otipermum, 
leguminous weeds and herbs, most of the Gumrhitaem, many of 
the Vomposilce, Oonvofoulaew, Scrophulariaeece, Am&rmiaeem, Com- 
ynUynaem and a large proportion, of the sedges, and grasses. 



FHYSIOAL SBflOKtKttOH. 



21 



The trees most characteristic of those tracts are as follows : — 



Dillonia pentajjynn. 

Cochlospermtim Gossypium. 

Kydia calyoina. 

Bomba-x malabarirtun. 

Sterailia foctidsi. arena, villosa, and 

cobrata. 
BrioJaina Hookenanaand cpimquelo- 

oulaviB. 
BoHweHia serraU. 
Gariua pmnak't 
Oedrela Toona, 
Chloroxylcm Swietenia. 
Elajodeiutrou glaucum. 
S&hleicheva Lrijuga, 
Bncliaaania latifolm 
Miituhnlea snbetosa. 
Butea frtradosa. 

Dalbei'gia i&fciilolia iaod pamtulaLa. 
Pteruoarptis Mamipmm. 



Hardwiokia binata 

Xyha dolabvifovmis. 

Aoaeia — -many speoiea. 

Albizzia ndorufcisauna and amat'a. 

Tormmaiia boinentoaa, pjmiuulala, 

helen'oa, and ohcbula. 
Anogeissus latifolius. 
Carey a arhoeca. 
Lagerstrcemia inioi'ocarpa and Flos- 

Koginfu. 
A din a cordifolui. 
Stephegyoe pawifolia, 
fi t ei" oap ovm n m xy 1 c i c ai'pu n i 
Teotiona grandis. 
Gruelina arborea. 
Phylianthus [Ombhea. 
Trema orientalis, 
ISambusa, artmdinacea •> 
Benclrocalsmus sirictns) Bamhcios ' 



ClUP. i. 

Flora. 

Their 
character- 
istic trees. 



Among these arc many of the most valuable timbers of 
the Presidency, and the following' may "be said to "be the most 
important 



And valuable 
timbers. 



Albizzia adorafcisaima (Kavangalli). 
Termmalia tomentosa (Maifci), 
Lagersfcrcemia mierocarpa (Ventoak) 
Teofcona grandis (Teak). 
G-melma arborea, 
Phyllanfchus Emblica (NelK). 
Santalatn albam (Sandalwood). 



Oedrela Toona (White cedar), 
Uhloroxylon Swietenia (Safcinwood). 
Schleichet-a trijuga (Puva), 
Dalbergia latifolia (Oiackivood or 

Rosewood). 
Pto'ocai'puB Mai'supium (Tengai) 
B&rdwiokia hinatu, (Acha). 
Xylia doiabrii'ormis (Irul). 

Second trad.— -The moist evergreen /wests of the slopes- — These 
are grandest on the western slopes and "between 3,000 and 4,000 
feet elevation, where the trees often attain 200 and 250 feet in 
height. . They are all evergreen , and their great variety of foliage 
and (ioiour renders them exceedingly beautiful, some of the young 
leaves coming out pare white, others a bright crimson, others all 
-"possible tints of brown, yellow, red, and greyu. These tracts are 
exceedingly moist from the first showers in March till the earl of 
December, and during that season abound with leeches. The 
trees are often covered with epiphytic orchids, ferns, mosses, 
balsams, and some Gesneravm, and there is a glorious profusion 
of rattans, tree-ferns, climbing ferns, and line creepers. But 
what may he said to be most characteristic of these forests is the 
genus Strobilcmt/ies {Aeaftikacm) , large shrubs, which form the 
principal underwood and of which 29 species are found on these 
hills. Some of these flower every year, but others only after a 
growth of six or seven years, when they die down and renew 
themselves from seed . Almost all of them have showy Sowers, 



Moist over- 
green forests 
of the slopes, 



22 



THE NILGTKTS. 



OHAP. I, and many of these are really "beautiful. The two palms Haryoia, 
jr&cmA. .urens and Arenga Wighiii are "eery conspicuous in these tracts, 
and so are several specimens of rattan {Calamus) and thi-ee very 
fine reed baniboos — Och'landra Uhmdii, Oxt/ienanthera Thwaitesii 
(Muraro)j and Teinodacfryum Wighiii:, a very handsome "broad- 
leaved species, described by Mnnro as a "hambusa from specimens 
only in leaf. Ferns occur in great profusion, including several 
tree-ferns, amongst which the AlsophUa crinlia (not yet intro- 
duced into English hot-houses and unmatched in any country) 
is very beautiful. Sonerilas and balsams are also numerous. 
Guiiiferw, Babiaceas, and Euphorbiacem arn the Orders perhaps 
most copiously represented (next to Aeanihacem), the first by 
trees, the two last "by shrubs and trees. 

Above 4,000 feet these forests begin to decrease in sisse, and 
towards the plateau they gradually pass into the sholm op woods 
referred to below. 

Their eliarao- The following is a list of the trees most characteristic of the 

teristfctroM, moist forests:— 

Polyalthia coiieoides. 

Garcinia Gamliogia and Morclla, 

Calophy Hum to men to sum. 

Mesua fevrea. 

Pseoilammroa Iiidioum. 

Dip tor" carpus tinrbiuafcus. 

Htipea parviflora a.rad Wighfci&na, 

VatPria Indira, 

Calleiiia esoelsa. 

Tjeptouychia moaccuraides, 

CHiekrassia tafoularifi. 

Oanarmm striatum. 

Aglaia Eostmrghiaua. 

Beddomea indica and shrtpli oil' alia. 

Gomphandrit axillaris and poly* 

morplia. 
Eiicrayimis indicus and angulafcas. 
Lopliopefcalam WighHamiTn. 
Havpnlia cnpanokles. 
Aorocarpns fraxinifolins, '•■ 

Acd timbers, ^he timbers, as a rule, ft re not of such good quality as those 
in the decidnous forests, but some are valuable, especially the 
following : — 

Galophylltiin tonioittosum (.Pooh 



Humboldtia Brunoms aud Yahliana. 
Saprosraa fragrans, "Wiglitii. and 

glomerata. 
Basslii elHptica. 
Pajauelia Uheeclii. 
Myristiea lanrifolia, and aiteimuta. 
Alsoodaplme a endear pi folia. 
Act; no daphne salieiua. 
Cryptooarya Wightiana. 
Aelephila excelsa. 

AgrGstisfcacliys lougifolia and inrlioa. 
Baeoanrea courfcallensis. 
Ostodea zeylanica. 
Adenoohlfena mdica. 
Bischofiia javauica. 
Heniieyclia vemista. 
Artocarpus hirsute. 
CHroimiera reticulata, 
Laportea cxenulata. 



Mesua ferrea (Troowood). 
Eopaa parriflora. 
naalabarica, 



Ohicki'assiafcakilaHs(ChiUag'Oiigwood), 
Acrocarpus fraxinifolios (Bed cedar or 

SMngle tree). 
DiospyroR cftonuni (Ebony) ■ 
Art-oearpas liirsuta (Angelli or <lyneti)> 
Git'onniora reticulata {Kho tnoDgee). 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



23 



Ou the Malabar side of the district these moist forests reach CHAP. 1. 
right down to the plains, just as they do in parts of .South gL0RA ' 
Canara, Coorg, and Travancore. Elsewhere they give way at 
1 000 or more feet from the base to deciduous forests or tracts 
composed of nothing hut reed bamboos [Teinostachyum Wightii). 

Third trad—The sh6la, or woods of the ^taw.-These are J*^" 
very similar in character to the moist evergreen forests of the the p^tea*. 
slopes, but from being at a higher elevation the trees are of different 
genera and species and their growth is much smaller, TO feet 
Ling much beyond the average height. 

They are all overgreon, aud the tints from the new growth 
at certain seasons are very beautiful. Myrtocem, Zauraem, and 
Siyraeem are the Orders most represented by trees, and the 
undergrowth is chiefly composed of Rubiaceous shrubs and 
Strobilanihes {Acemthacets) . 



The following are the principal trees growing 



in these Their 

characteristic 
trees. 



Ilfptfiplonmni racemoEum. 
,j rostratum. 

,, venulosum. 

„ obovatam. 

Viburnum punrtatum, ranbeseaus, 

hebantlmm, and ooriacenm. 
Vaeomeum Jieachenaulrii, ami 
j ISTilg'irieuse. 
: Sideroxyloii tomentosnm. 
j Symplocos— many species. 
S Lasiosiphon enocephsilus. 
I Machiliis macraiitb.i. 
| Phcebe Wightii. 

CinnamomuEQ Seylaniomn, vrtr. Wip'litii. 
Litacea WigbUana. 
Litscea Zeylunica, 
Gloelridi in— several species. 



Micheliit Nikgirica. 
Hydnocarpufi alpimts. 
Oordouia obtusu. 
, iBlDCOOarpUB oblongtw. t.ubemilatus 
and ferruginous. 
Molicope Inctica. 
Iloynea trijuga. 
Gomphawdra axillaris, 
Apodytes Benthamiana. 
Ilex Wightiana and ileuticnlata. 
Suonymus crennlatus. 
Micro-tropis ramiflora ami dpnsiilo 
Turpmin- pomiferu. 
Moliositia Arnottiana and punffcu 
Photinia Notoniana and Lmdleya - 
Eugenia-- many species, 
Pentapanax Leschenanltii. 
polyBoias acuminata. 

The timbers are of mneh Jess value than ir, either of the Amlttata™, 
other tracts. The following are those chiefly m use :— 

ST a..QO«p. 1S alpm M . ItaWigMtau, _ 

Li.* obt™.. Kugemc^vera B pe„.». 

Tem«tm>mia japonic. Eium.vm M owmnUtaiK. 
Elieocarpus obkmgua. 

Ferns and mosses abound. Amongst the former Akcfhih £^™ M _ 
latebrom, a tree-fern, is abundant. Orchids are very poorly 
represented. There is one species of reed bamboo (Anmdmarm 
WigMiatia) and some shrubby balsams and begomas, and the 



24 



thjb mi/amis. 



OHAP. I. 

Flora, 



The grass- 
land of the 
plateau. 



Its charac- 
teristic 
shjtibe. 



following 
^eristic :- 



herbaceous plants may be emnnerared aft cliarae- 



liigcr. 



Desmodiam Scalpe. 
Ci-otaliiria b&rbata. 
Fragai'ia indica and i 
Souerila spcciosa. 
Hydrocotyle javamua. 
Samoula euiopira, 
Seueoio cnrymbosus, 
f'hrysogonura hoteropliylla. 



Halenia Perofctefcu. 
Pogostemon rotuudatnB, 
„ speoiosns. 

Gerardinia Leachenaaltii. 
Elatostema diversifolia. 

,, sessile. 

Pilea Wighf.ii. 
CliEttn.ibaiala euspidafca. 



Vowlh tract, — The grass-'Umd of the plateau. — This tract is 
covered with many short, coarse species of grass which are 
quite burnt tip with the frost and sun in December and Jan- 
uary. After the first showers in March the growth, is very rapid, 
and numerous hei'baeeous plants spring up. The following are 
the most characteristic : — 



Anemone rivularie. 
Kanimeuliis reniformie. 
„ tliKusus. 

,, WalHehianue. 

Viola, serpens. 
Imjiatiens Beddomii. 
., Chiuensifi. 
„ ineonBxrtBua. 
,, fcninetitoaa 
Ci'Otaiaria- formoaa. 
ladigoi'eva pedieeHafji. 
Floaiiagia vestita, ra>' Jn'gV 
PufctjntiHa Kleinianu . 
,, Ijescheuanltii. 
„ supina. 
TJroseva Bni'manni, 
„ indioa. 
„ peltata 
Soneriia gi'anditim'a. 



Pimpineila Leecheiianltn. 
ileraoloum ringens. 
Auaphalis— several species 
Chmphalinm hypoleiicttm, 

„ raarceseens. 

Senecio— several species. 
Gcntiana quaflnfaria. 
S« orl'.ia ooi-yiabos.i. 

,, minor. 
Micvomena biflora. 
Brnnolla vulgaris. 
Pedieularis Pcrottetii 
/eylamcu. 
Siityrmin Nepal onse. 

„ WightiapQjn, 
Habenavia— -many species. 
Liltntxi Nilgirieuso. 
Pteris aquilma (bracken). 
Grleiehema diohofoma. 



Trees are only sparsely scattered about these tracts. These 
consist chiefly of Rhododendron arboreum, Salix tetmsperma, Celtis 
ieirandra^ Pifiosporitm, two species, Vodoncea viscosa, Wendltmdia 
Miordcma. The following are 1 he most characteristic shrubs :— 



Berberia uepalonsia. 

,, arisfiata, 
Hyperionta mysorecst 1 . 

„ Hookeriamnn . 
Eurya japasiea. 
ludigofera pnlehoHa, 
Bostnodinm rofo^ePria. 
AtyloEia Candollei. 
Sophora glauca. 
Cassia Timorieasis. 



j Cassia torapntosa (imported). 

I Utthns laaiooavpn?. 

i ,, eUiptious. 

j j, moluoeanua. 

; Rosa Lesebonanltiana 

| Cotoneastcr bnxifoliu. 

j Ithodomyi'ttia tomeuiqsfi. 

j Osbeckin Gardnonatja. 

j „ Wightiaiia. 

j Hedyotis Lawsonice, 



PHYSICAL UESCRimO?:. 



25 



Hetlyotiffl sfcykes. 

,, ai'tionlsris. 

„ jruticosa. 

„ prninosa. 
ijobelia exceiaa, 
Guaitheria fragrantissim 
Ligusti'Diti Porotrfcetit. 
„ I'obuBtam. 



.Tasinimms rovolutum. 
OkToi'Iondron scrratum. 
Lfiucas — several species. 
Eloaagims latifolia. 
StrohilantheB aessiZis. 

„ sossiloirles. 

,, K anthiamis. 



CHAP. I. 

Ji'MRA, 



This last is often gregarious and covers several acres in 
extent, and when out in flower is one sheet of "blue. It is the 
plant, which has "been supposed to have originated the name 
c Blue Mountains/ The three blackberries (Ruhus) are common, 
and they and the stretches of bracken and the clumps of fern 
give many spots a strikingly English appearance which appeals 
strongly to exiles on their first visit to the Nilgiris. 

The following may be enumerated as the most beautiful 
plants found in these hills : — 

Fagrsea obovata (Slopes). 
Uhoctodendrou arboreum (Plat-can). 
Geropegja Dct'-aiaiienna, (Sispara ghat) 

„ elegans (Oooaoorj. 
Exacum Perottefii ( „ ). 
CEgenetia pedunculat-a (Northern 

slopes). 
Inipaiietis afaalis (Sispara ghat). 

„ nivalis. 

„ Denieoaii (Sispara ghlt). 

„ Mrmrcmi ( „ ). 

„ Jerdonii ( „ ). 

,, maculafca (Paikara). 

,, latil'olia > Kotaghiand '' 

„ frnticosa j Gonnoor. i 

Vigna Wightii (ETorthern slopes). { 
Bauhinia Phcenicea (Sispara ghat). 
Gsbeokia Uardnariana (Plateau) 
Wightiana ( „ ). 
Sonerila grancliflora (Avalanche). 

„ speeiosa (Ootacaimind), 

, 5 olegans (Sispora- ghat). 

,1 versicolor ( „ ). 

, t axillari ( „ )• 

Paseiflora 3>acheriauHii(Coonoor). 

Pavotta siphonantlia (Sispara ghat). 

Saproama fragrans ( „ ). 

Kamiltonia snaveolens (Sig&r ghat), 

Vaooinium Lsschenaultii (Plateau). 

„ lalgirienae ( „ ). 
jjjrsim&ohia japonioa- ( „ ). 
Symplnoos pmlohra (Biepara ghat), 
Jasmioma hnmiJe (Plateau), 
A-lstoaJa veiMvuafcus (Coonoor ghat.). 
Beanraonfcia Jerdo-nia'tia {Korfchorn 
fiopas). 



Hoya pa-nciiiora (Bieparii ghat). 
Boncerosia diffusa ^ (Foot of Mils, 
„ itmbellata J southern). 

Porana raceraosa (Western elopes). 
Birea tilisofolia ] (Foot of hills 

Ipomea- caaipa-milata j and western 

slopes), 
Argyroia splendens (Wnstorn nlopes). 
„ speeiosa ( „ ). 

Ipomea vitifolia (Southern slopes), 
Solairam ferox (Northern slopes). 

„ Wightii (Coonoor). 

Toi-enia asiatica (Sispara ghat), 
PecHcalarle Porottetii (Sispara) . 
^Bechynanthiis seylanioa (Sispara 

ghat). 
Klugia Notoniana (Coonoor ghat). 
Pajanelia Rkeedii (West urn slopes). 
Thim'bergia Hawteymana, (Kdtagiri). 
„ Mysorensis \ (Western 

„ Wightii S slopes). 

SfcrobHantbes gossypmus (Sispara). 
„ luridus (Naduvafctam), 

„ iristia (Sispiiva ghat). 

„ BQxmms (Ootacamnnd) . 

„ iralchereimuB ( „ ) . 

,, pa-uioclatus (Western 

slopes). 
„ violaceus (Sispara), 

inyolucrata (OooBoor ghat). 
tun coronarium (Western 
slopes). 
Alpioia Rheedii ( „ ). 

Hnsa oraa-ta ( „ ), 

Gloriosa euperba (Soufchesa slopes). 
Liliwm nilgiriense ( „ ). 



Jirleri; 



And beauti- 
ful planta ■ 



THE NIIiOIRIS. 



OHAP. I 

FiORA. 



Books of 
vefei'QEca. 



All the above are, well worthy of in traduction into gardens and 
hot-houses. The orchids arc very poor compared to those of thy 
Himalayas and Burma, but the following are well worthy of 
cultivation : — 



D endrobmni acjueiim (Western slopes). 
Cfelogyne— all the species (Plateau), 
Artm&ina luambuaifoha (Western 

slopes). 
Ipsisi Malabarioa ( ,, ). 

Oyrtoptera flav»i. ( , ). 

„ (»,«! ( , ). 



Introduced 
plants , 



Vancfa spatliulata (Northern slopes). 
,, Roxburgh! ( „ ). 

/E rides crispum (Woatern slopes J. 
,, Lindieyiina (Kafceri and. 
Coonoor). 
Calantlie masuca (Platoau in <di<Slffs). 
Platanthera Sltsahhei. 1 (Western slopes). 



One hundred and seventy-eight species of ferns have been 
detected on these hills, and probably others only known from 
other districts? will yet be discovered on the western slopes. Two 
of these ferns, Zasfomt scabrosa and fermginea, are not, it is 
believed, found elsewhere. 

In. Appendix I to this chapter is given a complete catalogue 
of the flowering plants, ferns, and mospes of the JSTilgiris as at 
present known. The descriptions are to be found in a collected 
form in The Flora of British India by Dr. Hooker. The student 
niav also consult Wight and Arnofct's Prorfromus and Be Can- 
dolle's Prodrcmms for most of the plants; for the orchids. 
Dr. Liaclley's Genera mid Species Ore tulaeem and his papers in the 
Linnfflan Journal ; for the grasses Ximth's Mmimefdw Phniarmn 
and Steudel's Syn, PL Gram, ; and for the mosses the worlcs of 
Muller and Mitten. 

Very many of the flowering plants are figured in Dr. Wight's 
Icones Plmiaram and. Spteihgiwn Seilgherrense, of which the 
titles are the only parts which are in Latin. The latter contains 
over 200 coloured plates. Most of the trees and shrubs, or at 
least one or more of each genus, are illustrated in Colonel 
Be&dome s s Flora 8yhaMca, and all the ferns in Oolonel Bed dome's 
Ferns of Southern India and Ferns of British India,, all of which 
works are to be found in the Ootacainnnd Library. 

The Appendix does not include introduced plants. The 
Australian Eucalypti and Acncias have given quite a new oharac- 
tur to Ootacamand and Ooonoor, in. and about which they haye 
been planted very largely for firewood. The Forest department 
has put down several hundred acres of Eucalyptus globulus, the 
blue gum of Tasmania,, and there are also extensive plantations 
of Acaoia melanossyhn (the blaokwood) and dealbaia, (wattle). 
Their somewhat gloomy foliage has hardly improved the appear- 
ance of the stations, but in defence of them it may be pleaded that 
they have solved the difficult problem of the supply of fuel. Were 



FHYSXOAI, BBSOBITTIOH, 27 

they less ubiquitous, the blackwood would "be admired for its chap. I, 
handsome shape and the play o? light and shade among its thick J'i.uba. 
foliage; the wattle would he forgiven many of its sins for its - *™~ 

annual blaze of sulphur-yellow blossoms ; and even the blue gum 
would bo tolerated in the dusk with the evening light behind it, 
when its gracefi.il outline is noticeable but; not its dreary colouring. 

Besides the blue gum, numerous species of eueah ptus have 
been introduced from Australia, amongst which E aider my Ion 
(the iron bark), i?. ohliqua (string}' bark), B. ftssilis (mess-mate), 
B, mminalis (manna gum), 1'J. amy gckt Una (tho gigantic box-gum), 
E. rostmta (the red gam), B. ficifolia (the red-flowered gum), 
besides many other Victorian speoies ( may be mentioned as doing 
well. Some West Australian varieties, such as B.margtnata (the 
jarrah or mahogany tree, the wood of whioii stands exposure to 
sea- water and in Australia is much in use for jetties, ship-building, 
railway sleepers, etc.) and B, eahphylla } have been introduced and 
will grow with care ; but they do not stand the frost when 
young, and have to be carefully covered up in December, Janu- 
ary, and February until they attain certain dimensions. 

Very many of the Australian, acacias, besides the two above 
mentioned, have been, introduced aud ornament the gardens and 
roads, etc. Among them are Aoaaia limnohphylla (the myall or 
violet wood), A.pyGncmiha^ A. mlicina, A. decwrens, A. cuMriformis, 
A. dodmrnfol'M} A. ehta, A, hnytfoHa, A. saMgna, A.pulohdla, 
besides many others. 

Many other Australian trees and shrubs have also bee it intro- 
duced into gardens on the plateau, amongst which are many 
species of Halted, <*revftfea and llankua. Onsuarina quadrkahm 
and mb&rom (the she-oak and he-oak), Pommhms (three species), 
Myoporwm insuhre, Pittoaporum (two species), Melaleuca (several 
species), Leptospermwn (several species;, Callhteinon (fcwo species), 
Beanfortia, Kunzea, Galolhamnm, Anynpfiora, TrMmna, etc. Many 
of the Coniferm have also been introduced from the Himalayas, 
s and other countries, the most successful of which are 
jsms macroeurpa , .Lawsoniann, torubsa, xempervirens and 
Gmhmeriana, Araucarim Bidwilln and Gunmn$/iam s Cripiomeria 
JapoHiaty Frenefo species and Pinm itmynis^ pinaster and hnyifoiia. 

Some of the European pines, such as the larch and Scotch Br 
(P. hi mo and P. sylvesiris) , and some of the Himalayan Abies have 
quite failed to glow, and (probably owing to the want of a regular 
winter) the oak does indifferently and tho ^Un, birch and most 
other Olaropean deciduous trees refuse to make any growth at all. 



2& 



THE NILQIStS. 



CHAP, I, 
Flora. 



Soolqgx. 
flomeatio 

CaUIe. 



Tte mangosteen fruits well in the Government garden at Barli- 
y&r, about 2,500 feet in. elevation on tlie south- eastern slopes, where 
also the nutmeg of commerce, tlie clove, the cocoa, cinnamon, 
allspice, mahogany, camphor, breadfruit, litchi, durian and vanilla, 
thrive luxuriantly. Experiments .made with European fruit-trees 
are referred to in Chapter IV. 

In the gardens oil the plateau most of the flowers found in 
English gardens and green-houses are to he met with. The 
growth of fuchsias, geraniums, and heliotropes is so luxuriant that 
they are often made into hedges. The yellow gorae and the broom 
have been introduced and are prominent round about the stations. 

The bullocks and cows met with on the hills are all animals 
imported from the low country, and there are no indigenous breeds. 
The buffaloes kept for their milk by the pastoral tribe of the Todas 
are, however, very different from those of the plains below, being 
bigger and more strongly built and having huge horns which, rise 
in a wide curve above their heads instead of running- in an almost 
straight line along either side of their bodies, as elsewhere. Thpy 
are not, however, so powerfully and thickly built as the famous 
draught-buffaloes of Ganjam and Yizagapatam. Their ferocity is 
proverbial, and the combined charge of a herd of them down a 
steep hill with a bog at the bottom of it is unpleasant to encounter, 
even if one is mounted. 

Cattle disease, especially murrain, is commonest in the dry 
weather, when the herds are crowded together owing to the scarcity 
of pasture. Tlie Kotas, the artisan tribe of the hills, doubtless help 
to spread it by their habit of carrying off and keeping the hides of 
animals which have died, of it. 

Endeavours to breed foreign cattle on the hills have met with 
little success. Eng'lish cattle were tried * ab the experimental 
farm which was started at Keti by Mr. S. H. Lushington in 18-30 
(see p. 202), but none of them seem to have survived. Several 
short-horn bulls have been imported from Australia (the earliest, 
apparently, by General Morgan in 1882) and their progeny may 
still be seen in Ootacamund. In 18S0 some of the well-known 
Amrat Mahal animals from Mysore were entrusted to the Lawrence 
Asylum authorities, but by ! HS4 all but two had died. There seems 
to be a peculiar lack o[ nourishment in the natural grasses of the 
plateau (due, it is conjectured, to the low percentage of lime in ths-' 
soil) $ from December to February the absence of rain, combined 
with frosty at night and a hot sun by day, kills down all the 
pasture and necessitates stall-feeding ; and during the south-west 

1 fovi' XHarraiivsi of a, journey to the Walls uf the Qauvavy (London, lfi&i), 40. 



PHYSICAL D&aCEIFTION. 



39 



monaooB tiie "bitter wind and ceaseless rain on the exposed hills CHAF. I", 
speedily kill animals which arp not acclimatized and sheltered in Zoology. 
sheds. 

foreign sheep suffer from these same disadvantages. South- Sheep, 
downs were tried at the Keti farm ] hut seem to have died out; 
in lifS'i fifty half-bred merinos wore sent up from Mysore, but 
soon died; in 1860 a Mr. Rae imported some China sheep from 
Shsmgai, General Morgan had a large Hook of them for years, and 
many of the breed are still to be seen ; 3 and a cross between 
China and Leicester sheep was introduced but did not succeed. 
For .flavour of meat and early maturity these last loft nothing to 
be desired, but from want of fresh blood the flock became delicate, 
and many lambs were lost from inflammation of the lungs 
brought on by continued exposure to cold during the monsoon. 3 
Somo English sheep reared at the Lawrence Asylum were more 
fortunate and weighed as much as 80 lb. (after cleaning) when 
killed. 1 

The Berkshire pig crossed with the China breed has succeeded Pigs, 
admirably, but Nilgiri bacon and hams have never been a success, 
the absence of true winter weather preventing' proper curing. 3 

A miserable breed of pack-ponies is raised on the plateau by Horses and 
the natives. A private horse -breeding- establishment at Masini- P oni6f< ' 
gudi, on the lower ground to the north, has met with some 
success. Mule-breeding has been tried by a company at 
Anaikstti in the same neighbourhood., but has recently been 
abandoned. 

The game animals of the district include the elephant, tiger, Game 
leopard and Indian (sloth) bear, the sambbar, spotted, burking, amuia s * 



30 



THE NIIOTBIS. 



QHA1'. I. 

2SOOLOGT. 



Tigers, 



and grass-cutter clinging to its tail, 3 to escape a charge by 
one of them. So troublesome were tlie animals, indeed, that 
about 1840 the Collector of Coimbatore obtained a party of 
elephant hunters from Ghittagong and employed them for some 
years in catching the herds in kheddahs. They used also to 
he exceedingly common in the Onehterlony Valley, hut the 
opening up of this tract to coffee cultivation has driven them 
away. Their chief haunt in the district at present is the "belt 
of forest below the north side of the plateau (round, about 
Kasinigudi and Auaikatti) and the Wynaad. There they are 
still so numerous as to be sometimes a serious nuisance to travel- 
lers and cultivators. Many eases have occurred in recent years 
of cartnien travelling' along the two roads running from Mysore 
to Sigur and to Gudarur heiug held up by a herd of the brutes, 
and at the last revenue settlement of the Wynaad the immense 
damage they did to paddy-flats was urged by the Collector as a 
reason for leniency in the assessments proposed. Elephants also 
come down the Bhav&ni valley in [he north-east monsoon as far 
east as Tai Sliola. 

Tigers occur all over the district, both on the lower levels 
and on the plateau. They are commonest on the latter from 
March to June, when the heat and the forest fires drive them up 
from below. General Douglas Hamilton mentions l seeing five 
of them (two full-grown and three younger ones the size of 
large leopards) ah together on one occasion near ' Ounanmnd ' 
f apparently what is now called ' One innnd' ) sh61a. In 1903 
a sportsman at Nadnvatrtam succeeded in killing, one after 
the other, four which had gone down into a deep ravine after a 
dead pony. Not long ago one was caught in the Ouohterlony 
Valley in a barbed wire running noose fastened to two trees, 
which had been set by Knrumbas for sambhar, bnt after terrific 
struggles succeeded in breaking two of the wires and getting 
away with the loss of a great deal of hair and blood.. 

In the Wynaad the Wynaadan Chettis (the chief landowning 
class), aided by the "Pamyans (their iielcl-labonrere), make a 

' See his Buxr&n »/ Spmt •« Sutilhem Iiuliii tuomlou, 1893), 203. He lad 
a ekootiag-hat in a sm&B ahola about half way between tho Paikara traveller-is 5 
bongalow and the InddellKdale estate, to the right of tho bridle-road, which was 
a famous sporting rendezvous in his time and the remains of which are fitift 
visible. Other books describing H'ort on the 2nhn™ inulucle ulume by ' Hawkeys ' 
(his toolbar, Sen- JUrtoa Hamilton), a teriei of letters originally rontribnted 
in 1850 to the old S«t» a/ India Obnenxr anil [mblisliod at Ooly in 1871) j Ool. 
Walter Oamubell's T7.e Old Tornt Rmyrr (Unuon, 185SJ and V'j Iiujimt. 
tmnal (Edinburgh, ISM) ; Mr. a.Boyanjawaon's Sllgin Spotting Bn/iiflfaanco 
Waoran 1880) ; and Sir frederiok Price's Oikimmuni, a Mdort (Madran, 1808). 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 31 

practice of netting both leopards and tigers whenever they get 01XA.P, I, 

a chance. Inmost Louses a length or two of stout net is kep£, Zoology. 

and when a, tiger kills and lies up in a convenient "bit of jungle 

word is quickly passed round and the nets are produced and 

joined together. The occasion is a general tamasha, the women 

collecting in their smartest toilettes and the owner of the bit of 

jungle keeping open house. Prayers for success are offered to 

the various neighbouring 1 deities and one or more of the priests 

usually eventually work themselves up into a prophetic frenzy 

and foretell the success of the venture. The nets are then 

ai'ranged in the form of a T round the spot where the tiger is 

lying up Armed with long twelve-foot spears and direoted by 

Paniyans up trees, the men next, gradually drive the tiger up into 

the point of the Y, and finally by degrees close up the opening 

so that the animal is entirely encircled. 

Protected by the spearmen, the bolder spirits then get under 
the nets and cut away the jungle so that the circle can be gradu- 
ally narrower! j and the frequent charges of the tiger against the 
barrier are repulsed with shouts, clubs and the long spears, 
That niwlit, .fires are lit all round the enclosure and the party 
remains on guard, singing songs and recounting stories. In the 
morning half a dozen Paniyans march round tho enclosure three 
times with spears and all kinds of music, stopping at intervals to 
shout challenges to the tiger to come oat. The nets are thereafter 
gradually closed in day after day until the tiger, half dead with 
thirst and constant harrying, is at last speared to death. His 
body is pulled out and (after a scramble to secure the whiskers, 
which are potent protectors against all evil spells) is propped up 
on a horizontal pole, as if still alive. The tip of the tongue and 
of the tail are cut off and burnt lest magicians should secure them 
for working Hack magic, and eventually the skin is borne off to 
the taluk office and the Government reward isxlaimed. In former, 
and less practical, days it used to be left to rot where it hung. 

Leopards, like tigers, are common in all parts of the district. Leopard* m.A 



So mauy cases of black leopards are reported that there is (some eRr8 ' 
ground for supposing that they are commoner on the hills than 
in the plains. Bears are seldom seen on the plateau itself but 
are frequent on the slopes and in the lower country. According 
to ' The Old Forest Ranger/ they were formerly numerous in the 
Orange Valley, 

Sambhar are also found all over the district wherever there Dear 
is suitable cover, and on the- plateau the favourite stalking-ground 
is the Kundahs, where the protection afforded by the Game 



32 THE NJMHHB. 

OH AT*. 1, Association Iiiih resulted iu a marker! increase in their numbers. 
ZiooLou-i The heads do not run as large as in North India, the record being 
12 inches measured from burr to tip along the curve. Three heads 
of this size have been, shot— one by General Douglas Hamilton in 
the sixties, one by Ookmel Hadfield about the same time, and the 
third by the latter'?; son Mr. Edward Hadfield at Ebbanad in 
1905 The earliest European arrivals on. the hills used to call 
these animals 'elk ', whence the Elk Hill at Ootacaimmd . 

Spotted deer never come to the higher levels and are common- 
est round Hasinigudi. The- barking, or rib- faced, deer (munt- 
jac) still go by the old incorrect name of ' jangle-sheep ' which 
was given them, by the earliest visitors fco the hills. Like the 
sainbhar, they often prove too strong a temptation for the more 
riotous of the Ootacamund hounds. Four-horned deer are 
uncommon. The little mouse deer only lives in the thick jungle 
on the slopes and is very rare. 

Antelope ai-e only found round Sigiir and in small numbers. 

Biscm. Now and again a stray specimen or two of the bison or gaur 

(called ; the wild ball' in the old days) finds its way from the 
Satyamangalam hills to the jungle round Mettupalaiyam, but a!? 
a rale they are only met with round Masinigudi and in the great 
Benne and Mudumalai forests in the north of the Nilgiri Wynaad. 
Rinderpest has more than once committed havoc among them. 
Bison are never seen nowadays on the plateau, hut My Indian 
Journal (p. 374) mentions that one was once shot on the Kundahs; 
General Douglas Hamilton killed another near Pirmand there 
in 18(36 1 ; and the ' Bison Swamp ' not far from that spot must 
have originally been so named from its connection with these 
animals. 

Pig, Pig are numerous. As the country is nowhere ride able, they 

are allowed to be shot. Now and again the Ootacamund hounds 
have rioted after one and, as fox-hounds do not tackle, the rushes 
of an old boar at bay have proved most disastrous. On one 
recent occasion thirteen hounds were more or less severely out 

TheKUtfri The Mlgiri ibex: (Bemit/mgus hjhenus^ really a wild goat j is 

lboK ' perhaps the most interesting of the game animals of the plateau 

as it belongs to a strictly Indian genus the only other species in 
which is the tarh of the Himalayas r occurs nowhere in the world 
outside the .Madras Presidency ; and, with the exception of an 
ibex on the higher mountains of Abyssinia, is the only goat 
living south of the north temperate aone- When. Europeans 
first came to the hills it was unknown to science and was 

1 P, 250 of his faoofe already quoted. 



PHYSICAL BESCEIPTXON. 33 

commonly called : the chamois. 5 It is not, as its -name would CHAP, i, 
imply, peculiar to the Nilgiris, but is found all along the Western Zoowat, 
Ghats to the southwards (including* the Anaimalais and Paliiis) as " 

far as Cape Coinorm. In this district it lives only on the plateau 
and is commonest on the precipitous southern and western sides 
of the Kun.dah.s- Its arch-enemy is the leopard. Though the 
horns are not impressive trophies (the record head, shot many 
years ago by Mr. Rhodes Morgan at Tarnot Maud near Glen 
Morgan, measured 17% inches along the outer curve) they are 
valued for the difficulty in obtaining them occasioned "by the 
extreme wariness of their possessor and the dangerous nature of the 
ground on which he lives. In 1875 a Mr. Butcher was killed "by 
falling down a precipice on the Paikara side of the hills when 
after ibex, and lies buried in St. Stephen's churchyard. 1 

As in many other places, the wild dogs are the greatest foe of Wild dog*. 
the deer tribe, hunting them in packs relentlessly. They appear 
to come and go in accordance with no clear reasons, "being* 
frequent one year and scarce the nest. This year (1906) they 
swarm along the western side of the Kundahs and sambhar are 
correspondingly scarce. Luckily they seem to be liable to some 
infectious disease which periodically reduces their numbers. In 
1893 nine were found dead, in the jungles round Sigur., all wasted 
and thin fiom disease, and three more near Hellakottai in the 
Wynaad. 

The shooting country in the district is very small, and the Tie Gaen 
number of sportsmen has always been large ; and soon after the j4BB00ia * ;, « 11 
first regular occupation of the plateau by Europeans, fears began 
to be expressed that the game would shortly be all killed out, 
more especially as public opinion did not then, as now, condemn 
the slaughter of females, immature males and stags in velvet. 

The letters written in 1870 by ( Plawkeye ' ( General Richard 
Hamilton) to the old South of India Observer at length called 
attention to the matter ; Lord Napier, the then Governor, evinced 
much interest in it ; in. 1^77 a Game Association was founded to 
lake action; and the eventual result was the passing of the 
Nilgiri Game and 'Wish Preservation Act II of 1879, which 
provides for the establishment of a close season for game animals 
and birds of certain specified kinds, gives power to frame rules to 
regulate fishing and shooting, and lays down penalties for violation 
of its provisions. It does not apply to the Wvnaad, shooting 
and fishing in which are governed by rules under the Forest Act, 

1 See Mr, G-, B. Dawson's book already quoted, p. II, and Mr. Batcher's 
iomlJB'bone. He is said, to hare heen knocked off a ledge by a wounded buck 
which tried to bolt back past him. 
S 



34 



THIS NHiGXRIS. 



CHAP. T. Since then, armed with the powers conferred by various 

Soologt. notifications under this Act, the Nilgiri Game and Fish Preserva- 
tion Association, of which the Collector is ex officio President, 
lias done much to save the existing ga3ue from over-shooting and 
something to introduce new game birds and fish. Among other 
things, close seasons have been established within certain classes 
of forest reserves and grazing-grounds for certain large and 
small game and fish ; watchers have been, appointed to check the 
native pot-hunter and rewards paid for the killing of wild dogs 
and other animals and birds destructive to game ; a fee (Rs. BO) 
for shooting and fishing licenses has been prescribed ; the killing 
of the females of certain game, of hornless males, stags in velvet, 
sambhar with heads under 26 inches and spotted stags under 
22 inches has been prohibited and the maximum number of 
sambhar and ibex to be shot by each license-holder fixed ; the 
egg's of jungle-fowl and peafowl are protected; the catching 
of fish by poison, dynamite, traps etc. is forbidden ; and certain 
sholas have been closed to beating and others to all shooting, and 
certain waters dosed against all fishing. 
?}ie smaller In Appendix II to this chapter is given a list of the mammalia 

oataiua s. f 0TMU i n the Nilgiris. 1 In addition to the game animals referred 
to above, a few of these deserve a word or two of special mention. 
The Nilgiri laugur, Semnopithecus johnii. commonly known as the 
black monkey, lives in the quieter sholas on the plateau and does 
not go down to tho low country Its beautiful coat, which is 
long, glossy and black except for a reddish -brown portion on the 
head and nape, leads to its being much shot by the natives, 
who have not here the usual religions objection to killing 
monkeys. 

The lion-tailed monkey, Macacos ftiteniis, chiefly inhabits the 
dense and remote forest on the western side of the plateau and is 
seldom seen. It has a black coat with a tuft at the end of its 
tail, and surrounding its face is a reddish-white ring of hair 
which gives it a very antiquated and venerable expression 

Only three kinds of bat3 have so far been reported. The 
hedge-hog, which is chiefly found on the eastern and lower slopes, 
is the ordinary South Indian variety, Two mwtek'dcs occur, 
namely, the Indian marten and the flawless otter. The latter 
is abundant in the streams and is most destructive to fish, and 
the Game Association pays rewards for its destruction. 

a This and moat, of the notes whioL follow are taken from Surgeon-Major 
Bulla's oontrilmtioxi -to the original District Manual. Mr, 15, Ikurston, Superin- 
tendent of tho Madras Museum, has been kind enough to correct the nomenclature 
in Appendices II-V. 



tfirXSICAL DESCRIPTION. 35 

Tie Felines include, "besides the tiger and the leopard, the CHAP. 1, 
leopard-oat, the jungle-cat, the common tree- cat (Indian Palm- Zoology. 
civet) and a larger species which Surgeon-Major Bidie thought 
was the Paradoxwus Zeyhtnicus, x&r.fuscus, of Kelaart, but which 
is not noticed by Jerdon and up to then had not been regarded as 
a native of (Southern India. The exceeding commonness of these 
various lands of oats may he judged from the fact that from 
1805 to 1906 the Game Association, paid rewards for killing 980 
of thorn. 

Three kinds of mungoose occur on the hills, namely, the 
stripe-necked, the ruddy and the Nilgiri brown variety. Borne 
hundreds of these have also been hilled for the sake of the 
rewards put upon their heads. 

Of the seven species of squirrels, the Nilgiri striped squirrel 
is peculiar to the hill ranges of Southern India and Ceylon, bat a 
nearly allied (if not identical) species, the Sciurus insignis of 
Ho'rsfield, is found in Java. The beautiful Malabar squirrel 
occurs in the Wynaad. The flying squirrel, which inhabits dense 
forests low down on the western slopes, is nocturnal and thus 
seldom seen. 

The rats include the mole rat, which does much damage to 
turf by burrowing underneath it, chewing up the roots and 
throwing up in heaps the earth excavated from its tunnels ; and 
the bush or coffee rat, also common in Ceylon, which is so called 
because at certain seasons it appears in great numb era and nibbles 
off the young branches of the coffee trees and eats their flowers. 

The porcupine of the hills is the usual variety. He does much 
damage in gardens, being especially fond of potatoes, and has 
now developed a keen liking for young rubber plants. He also 
occasionally proves himself an unpleasant antagonist to any of 
the Ootacamund hounds which riot on the strong scent he 
carries. 

The history of the Uotacanmnd Hunt is so fully detailed -xte ootaoa- 
in Sir Frederick Price's forthcoming book that only the shortest aumdHimt. 
reference to it is here necessary. The first regular pack of fox- 
hounds was started by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Thomas) Peyton 
about 1845 but was sold in 1846 on the ground that the country 
was unrideable ! JProm 1854 until the Mutiny broke out and 
interfered, the 74th Highlanders kept a pack at Wellington which 
hunted one day a week at Ootacamund; and from 1859 to 1863 
the 60th Bines at- the same cantonment maintained a bobbery 
pack which came over now and again. In 1864 and 1#65 the 
Madras hounds came up for theseason, and rather desultory hunting 



36 THE KnXGIRlS. 



ortAP, i. 



occurred in the years immediately following- At last, in I860, 
Zooluot. M-r. -T. W. Breeks, the first Commissioner of the Nilgiris, got 
together the first regular pack, and then began the connection 
with the Hunt of the well-remembered Colonel ( Bob ' .Tago, 
then in charge of the forests of the district, who was the real 
father of the Hunt and whose portrait now hangs in the Club. 
Mr, Breeks died in 1872 and his successor Mr, Goekerell (known 
to his friends as i Cockey,' and the name-father of ' Cockeyes 
Course } on the Downs) became Master, Colonel Jago, who 
had been on leave, returned in 187 i and was elected Master and 
Huntsman. He resigned the post in 18H7, when he retired. 
Since then the Hunt has gone from strength to strength and 
nowadays has always 30 couple of hounds in kennel and a 
subscription list of Rs. 15,000. The reservation in 1896, when 
Lord Wenlook was Governor, of the 80 square miles of grass and 
siholla lying immediately west of Ootacamimd and officially called 
' the Wenlock Downs/ has not only preserved for ever a much- 
needed tract of gra zing-laud, but has provided the Hunt with a 
1 home country ' the like of which no other pack in India can 



The birds of the district are mors numerous and more varied 
at the lower levels, from 2,000 to 4 ; 000 feet above the sea, than on 
the plateau itself. 1 Daring the worst of the south-west monsoon 
many of them migrate to the eastern side of the hills to avoid 
the heavy rain. In Appendix HI to this chapter is given a 
list of the chief species found in the district, the nomenclature 
and classification being those given in the Fauna of British India. 
Unhappily no connected account of them has ever been written, 
and it is to be hoped that some one may arise to do for them what 
Wight did for the flowers and plants of these hills. 

Of the liapiores } or birds of prey, the largest are the two 
- vultures— the long-billed brown vaiiety and the white scavenger. 
Both are fairly common and are said to breed on the hills. 
The Grame Association offers rewards for the slaying of several 
of the more destructive of the falcon family and also of the 
orow-pheasant ; and a fail- number are killed annually. Barer 
Migrant Bcyptores include the peregrine {F&ko feregrinus, Gm.j, 
he pale harrier (Circus Macmrus, S.Gh Qm.) and the marsh harrier 
{0. ceruginosm, Lin, J ; and. the common buszard (Bi&ieo deser- 
toruni} Daud.) and the white stork (Oicom'a alba, Bech.) haye 

1 Moat of the following notes sxb taken fs-oui Savg: eon- Major BiSifl'a account 
in the original District Manual. 



PHYSICAL DBSCBTPTION. 37 

also boeri seen. 1 Ten species of owls occur and, as 'elsewhere in CB'AP, r. 
South India, are regarded "by the natives as birds of ill-omen. Kooiogy, 
The swallow family are also well represented. The edible-nost ' 
swiftlet breeds in the cave in Tiger Hill at Ootacamiuid above 
the toll-bar at the top of the gMt road to Coonoor. The nests 
consist of a frame-work of grey lichen, glued together with 
inspissated moons. Bee-eaters, king-fishers, horn-bills and para- 
keets are each represented by two species, the beautiful blue- 
winged parakeet being especially noticeable in the Wynaad; 
^ there are as many as eight of the handsome woodpecker family , 
eight cuckoos occur, four shrikes and numerous fly-catchers, 
thrushes (several of which are migrants from the north and some 
of which sing as well as the English variety), babblers, buibuls, 
and warblers. Some of the tree-warblers, though they do not 
look like birds capable of long nights, breed in Kashmir and 
the Himalayas and even, in Central Asia and Siberia. 

The game birds include two kinds of green pigeon, the 
Imperial pigeon and the Nilgiri wood-pigeon, peafowl on the 
lower levels, the grey jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, two kinds of quail, 
snipe and woodcock. The two last arrive between the end of 
September and the beginning of November and there is some 
competition to secure the first cock of the season. The woodcock 
resemble their English cousins in their peculiar fondness for 
haunting exactly the same spot year after year. Snipe feed in 
the bogs on the plateau, but they are not plentiful and a bag of 
eighteen couple is apparently the record for one gun. Practically 
all of them are of the pintail variety. 

The Game Association has made many fruitless efforts to 
introduce exotic game birds. Ohikor, English, Himalayan and 
Chinese pheasants, partridges from the plains, black partridges 
from North India, red jungle-fowl and guinea-fowl have all been 
tried in turn without success - s and in 189b the Association decided 
to abandon further attempts and devote all its energies to the 
Introduction of exotic fish into some of the many excellent streams" 
on the plateau. 

These streams contain only two indigenous fish ; namely, a pish, 
stone-loach and a small variety rarely exceeding 3| inches in 
length which Dr. Brancis Day, the fish-expert, named Danio 
Silgmemw and which is commonly called a minnow. The streams 
below the plateau are, however, much better supplied. Br. Day 

1 I'his and one ui' two other facts below are taken fi'oin a toto on the 
migratory birds of the NUgiriu by Mr, W. Davison, F.2.R., kindly lent by Mr. 
IS. Thurston. 



THB 5TILGIRTS. 



CHAP. I. stated l that in a stream on the Cleveland estate, about ten miles 
Zoocoot. below Kotagiri and 3,500 feet above the sea, he found the 
' Indian trout ' (BaHlius rugoms, Day), which is really a carp 
and grows to about six incbos in length ; and a little lower down, 
at, an elevation of about 3,000 feet, a small carp (Pimtius Grayii. 
Day) and a little loach' {Nem&chMuslGumthm, Day). In the 
Sigur vivex: he found the Carnatic carp [Pimifaia (Barbw) Oaynati- 
em, Jerdon], two other loaches — JSfemaehifas semi-armatus, Day, 
which grows to six inches in length, and iV. Bemsomi, Bay — 
Bunio aurolineahis t Day, which is about five inches Song, a 
. fine minnow (Basbora Nilyinensis, Day) which is said to attain 
eight inched and breeds rapidly, Qmra yotyfa, Ham. Buch. 
and Discognathm Jerdoni, Day, which are abundant and run up 
to six inches, the Indian, trout again "and the small murrel, 
Ophioc&phalus gaehua, Ham. Bach 

In the Hhavani the species were far more numerous, and 

Dr. Day captured 

Labeo Ditjaumieii, Ctrv. and 

Tal 
Labeobarbus tor, Ham, 

BucK. 
Putitius gracilis, Jerdon. 
diibiua, Day. 
Garnattctis, J or- 

don. 
Grttyii, Day. 
Jilamentobus, (Jnv. 
and Yal. 
Sarbw arulius, G-unther. 
Amblyph aryngccbm Jer~ 

&<mi, Day. 
Haahortt woohiree, Day. 
Bariliua mgOhiis ! "Q&y. 

„ uociW, Ham. Buch, 
Danio awoUrieatus, Bay. 

„ eZepatis, Day. 
Esomus 



Gphiocepkal-us Ultmtlms, 

Ham. Biicl,. 

j, sUiaius, 

Blooh. 
„ gachua, 

Ham. Buck. 
Mastace/iibelv>s artiiaius, 

Lacep. 
ttitopterws Pallasii, Our. 

and Yal. 
Henit&ajrtts jJitMemiuSj Jer- 
don. 
Stjpseldbagrua eavasuiHi 

Ham. Buch. 
Wallago abta, BJoeh. 

„ Halahovici, Gvlv. 
and Tal. 
. Qlyptostermm Lonafo 



ffle.maehil'as 



QtomtIi@ri J 
Day. 

Denis ordit 



&arra gotyla, Ham. Buck' 
ZtixcogntuthviS Jerdoni, Day_ 
LaJjeo fto«>*M(*, Jerdon. 



shown in the 
margin. Of these, 



the striped nuirrel 
(0. siriatus) grows 
to about three 
feet in length, is 
thought good eat- 
ing by Europeans 
8Jid natives and is 
also found in tanks 
and wells. The 
orange murrel (0. 
Marulius) attains 
the same size but 
is only found in 
rivers. The mur- 
rel have hollow 
beads wherein they 
are able to retain, 
water and so can 
live- a considerable 
time out of their 

native element. The small murrel (0. gacfwa) is only about a 

foot long but bears transporting bet her than the other two. 

The Carnatie carp runs up to 251b. in weight and occurs in. 

regular droves, but is almost too bony for the table. 

1 S£#sEr»e Quarterly Journal of M&distil Sosewce, x.0., S6. 



Chela argtintoa, Say. 
Jtolone canoila, Ohv. 

Buch. 
Swsm macvXata, Ham. 

Buch. 



PHYSICAL OSSOBIPTION. dy 

The mahseer (Barkis mosdl. Guv.) in the upper waters of the GHAP. I, 
Bhavani, especially near where the Eam&ah and Siruvani rivers Zoology, 
jam the main stream, user! to afford first-class sport. The p &aa ^. 0] ^ 
"biggest fish on. record (caught by Mr. H. P. Hodgson) weighed thoBhavani, 
74 lb., Mr. ' Nick' Symons captured another of 72 lb,, and several 
over 60 lb. were killed. But of late years the natives have 
killed thousands of this and the other Bhavani fish by various 
poaching tricks. In the hot weather, when the water is low, 
they dynamite thi pools in which the fish have taken, refuge, 
poison them with lime and with "barks which stupefy them 
and cause them to float on the surface, set bamboo traps for 
them across the .natural ladders up the falls- and catch them by 
setting night lines consisting of a small fish looked, through, 
the bach and tied to the whippy end of a branch of an over- 
hanging tree which automatically plays, until it is tired out, any 
iish which takes the bait. 

The big fish run up the river to the spawning-beds (which 
are in the uppermost waters, amid the dense jungle above Atta- 
padi village) during the monsoon floods and attempt to return when 
the river begins to fall again.. It is then that the jungle men, 
put forth all their energi.es to capture them. They build 
across the river, especially in places where the stream is brokea 
up by islands, great barriers made of plaited bamboo through 
which no fish of any siae can pass, and in the middle of these 
they leave a single opening in which they insert a bamboo trap 
something like an English eel-trap. Very few fish ever get past 
these contrivances. Even more harm is doue by the poaching 
which is practised just below the spawning -beds. There the 
methods adopted are similar, but more thorough. The barriers 
are made of stones packed with leaves and branches and are 
quite impassable ; and the bamboo traps are so closely woven 
that not even the smallest fry can get through them. Thousands 
upon thousands of the tiniest iish are thus killed In their attempts 
to follow their natural instinct to descend the river, and the j imgle 
men themselves admit that the supply of them has in consequence 
enormously decreased in recent years. 

The first attempt to import exotic fish to the waters of the Experiments 
upper plateau appears to have been the stocking of the tank at T 1 ]* 8X0t *° 
Billikal on the edge of the plateau above Sigur. In this, Sir 
William JRumbold, then owner of the neighbouring bungalow, 
put fi?h from the plains about 1830. Jn 1844 Mr Martelli, 
who was then the owner., put in other fish from the Sisfur river, 
among which were some Oaraatie carp which grew afterwards to 



40 THE HILSXEie. 

GHM>. I. 5 lb. ia weight. 1 Tlie first attempt to introduce European, fish 

Kookoqt. 'into the plateau was made in 1863,' when about 500 trout 

(apparently brown trout) ova were sent oat from Sngland. 

They were not kept sufficiently cool and all. died before they 

reached Ceylon. 

In 1866 Dr. Day made a far more earnest attempt with about 
6 3 00C more ova of the same kind at the cost of the Madras Govern- 
ment. The ova were packed in ice, kept in the ship's ice-room 
(nine tons of Lake Wenhnm ice were sent toiSuea specially for the 
experiment), carefully guarded against vibration in the trains by 
being slung from the roofs of the carriages, and carried tip from 
Ooimbatore (the then terminus of the railway) with every precau- 
tion to a masonry hatching-house which had been, specially built 
for them according to Dr. Day's directions in. the Government 
Gardens at Ootacamund. The ova had stood the journey fairly 
well, the percentage of dead langing only from. 10 to 20, but 
owing to the high temperature of the water in the hatching- house,, 
the impossibility of getting water quite clear of fine silt and the 
attacks of several kinds of water insects, not one batched out. 3 

Dr. Day nest directed his attention (in the same year 1866) to 
bringing up fish from the rivers of the plains. He had them 
caught in the Bhavani and established a stock-pond at Woodcot 
in Ooonoor to break the long journey. Constant supervision was 
necessary, as the coolies employed to bring them up were both 
careless and cunning. One of their tricks was to lighten the barrels 
and chatties by emptying them of their water as soon as they were 
out of sight of M^ttnpalaiyam and .fiHing* them up ag-ain just 
before they reached Coonoor — the inevitable result being the death 
of all the fish in them. Dr. Day eventually succeeded in trans- 
porting to the Ootacamund lake, the .Paikara river, the Sigur 
river and the ponds in the Government Gardens, lfi eels, 28 
Carnatic carp, two orange murrel, 10 striped murrel, 149 small 
murrel (0, gachua), and 118 other fish including Laheo Dusswm'eri, 
Rasbora Isfilg'triensh, Danio emroMnmtus, Barilius ruc/osm, Puntim 
gracilis and P. fihmentoms. In .July 18f>7 Dr. Day netted the 
Government Gardens ponds and found that the Dank aurolineatus 
and the JRmhora had bred and that the JBanUus were healthy. He 

1 Dr. Day's article in Madras Quarterly Jfmmdt. of Merlical Science, xxi. Tho 
dates wul names he gives are in some cases inaccurate, and have beon covrMted . 

2 "Dr. Pay's article, 

3 An interpstirg and detailed, account of the whole experiment from stark 
to finish will be found in Dr. Cay's report printed in &.O., No, 650, Public, 
iated 28fch Juno 1868, and an abstract of it in his papev in +-he Mad. Q»«j t, Joum, 
Med. Ed. already oitnet. 



PHYSICAL DBSCRIFTIOH. 41 

also obtained six Grurami (a Chinese fish which the French, had CHAP. I. 

introduced in Mauritius) which he put in the Ootacamund lake. Zooumi. 
Nothing has since been heard of these last. 

At the end of the same year Mr. W. Mclvor, Superinten- 
dent of the Government Cinchoua Plantations, reported to 
Government that he had brought out from Europe, on his return, 
from leave, 15 lake trout fry, 10 carp, 24 tench, 12 rudd, IS silver 
eels and three gold-fish, that he had put them into the hatching- 
house built in the Government Gordons for Dr. Day's trout ova 
and that they were alive and healthy. The methods he had 
adopted 1 were to keep the fry at first for some three months in 
an aquarium with a strong flow of water (gradually diminished) 
passing through it, to accustom them to artificial conditions, and 
then to place them in a series of small metal tauks suspended one 
above the other in a wooden framework which could be slung 
when on board to mitigate the effect of the vessel's motion. 
From each tank the water .flowed through a tap to the one below, 
so that the water in all of them was constantly aerated. 

In i860 Mr. Mclvor reported that the fish had been trans- 
ferred to the Government Gardens ponds ; that the trout, tench 
and rudd had spawned and that there were from 200 to SOD 
young fry one or two inches in length of each of the two former 
kinds and three dozen of the last. Government sanctioned 
money for distributing these fish among the waters of the plateau 
and in the same year Lady Napier and ICttriok, wife of the then 
Governor, put the first lot into the Ootacamund lake, Mr. 
Mclvor subsequently reported a that with the remainder he had 
stocked all the waters on the Nilgiris, including the Kundahs. 
He said that the trout (which had been placed by themselves in 
the Paikara, Avalanche and ( Mftkarti ' rivers, and also with other 
fish in the Ootacamund, Bumfoot and "Lovedale lakes) had not 
done well; that the fry of the others had escaped down the lake 
weir into the Sandy Nullah stream, where tench, carp and rudd 
(but no trout) had been caught in hundreds for months past with 
small-meshed nets by the natives ; and that fifty had been 
captured so far down as the pool below the Ralhatti fall. He 
begged for the protection of the fish from, the natives, who 
caught even the smallest of them and wantonly destroyed those 
which they could not eat. A municipal bye-law was framed 
accordingly. 

1 They are described in detail, with illustrations, in his report printed in 
GKQ.,No. 2282, Revenue, dated Sfcli August 1889, which is partly reprinted in 
the original District Mawmk pp. 167-70. 

5 Hie letter in &.O.. No. S99. Bevenne. tinted 23rd August 1873. 



42 THE KIT.GIRIS. 

Chap. I. Of the trout, some wore said x to have "been afterwards 

Zoology, caught in a stream near Naduvattam and six (at the end of 1875) 
near the Paikara bungalow. 2 Doubts having been expressed as 
to whether these fish had. really "bred as supposed in hill waters, 
one of the latter was sent to Mr. H. S. Thomas in spirits and was 
eventual!;? identified by the Xoni'uean Society as a Loch Leven 
trout.. Mj\ Thomas subsequently put somp JLabeo eoMases and X. 
nigrpiitw in a pond in (he Adderley estate, "but they got into the 
colfee-pulper and were killed. In 1877 Mr. Wapshare and Mr. 
HuliM-t Knox [Hit into the Paikara some carp caught in the Hope 
tiver in tVs Ouehterlony Valley, In 1879 Mr Barlow, then 
Commissioner of the jSTilgiris, reported that mahseer had also 
"been put into the Paikara (when and by whom he did not say) 
but that the natives frustrated all snch experiments by netting the 
river as soon as it was low. Nothing seems to have "been done 
to stop this wholesale destruction until 1884, when the Game 
Association and the Collector reported that dynamiting and 
netting with small-mesh nets were daily increasing in frequency. 
A notification was then, issued under the Act II of 1879 ahove 
referred to prohibiting these and other similar practices in. the 
chief lakes and rivers of the plateau. 

As far as can he gathered, the net result of all these numerous 
experiments is that the Oofcacarnund lake, which was recently 
specially netted hy the authorities to ascertain what fish it held, is 
full of small tench and carp of different kinds (which are caught in 
hundreds by natives with rods) and contains a* few Bctrilius ; and 
that in the fine pools in the Paikara river round abont the travellers 1 
bungalow are large quantities of carp which take a fly unwillingly 
and are almost too bony to be eaten. The largest of these last on 
record weighed 7 lb. and was caught by Captain Eeadnell, 

Later on the success of an attempt by Mr. Marsh to import. 
and hatch trout ova led in 1893 to the Game Association 
endeavouring to do likewise. The first lot of 40,000 ova were 
put- into the ice-room of the steamer and, of course, were frozen 
to death at once. The nest lot (20,000) arrived in March, the 
hottest time of the year, and nearly all died in consequence. 3?or 
the reception of future consignments, a fry pond and a stock pond 
were made in the Marlimanri plantation near Snowdou House, 
and an. elaborate series of seven fry ponds and a stock pond at 
Paikara. Mr. Bhorlea Morgan, the Association's honorary secre- 
tary, took immense interest in the matter. The two Snowdon 

1 Tli.e original District Mmiwl, 1.06. 

s Mr, H. S, Thomas' The Rod in In&kv, (London, 1881), 198. Mr. Hodgson 
possesses gome trout fry about iwe inohera lofigf, ijroaeryed in spirits, wMolx Mr, 
Molror eaifl. were bred in Ootaoamiiad by him. 



PHYSICAL m-auKiPXJON, -i-3 

ponds were also afterwards utilized and a hatchery \va*< made in OH A! . t. 

the shdia to the east of them. Between 1893 and 1897 a series of Zoowui. 

consignments of trout ova, of various kinds (the English Sahno 

Leeenensis and/ruio and the American fontinalis and irridenn;, or 

rainbow trout) -were imported and hatched with varying success 

and put out to the number of many hundreds in the Paikara, 

Avalanche, Emerald valley and Kundah risers, in the Burnfoot 

lake, the Mariirnand and Dodabetta reservoirs and the Snowdon 

ponds 1 Except in the Snowdon ponds and the Emerald valley 

stream (in which latter Major T N. Bag-nail killed in 1902 

ona weighing as much as 7 lb.) nothing- was evtr seen of any of 

these afterwards. It seemed clear that though the fish put down 

lived and throve in some cases, the temperature of the water was 

too high for them to "breed in successfully, for when this rises 

above 60° F. the ova of both brown and rainbuw trout hatch out 

so quickly that the alevins are too weak to survive. 

Interest in the matter gradually waned, but in 1904 another 
"20,000 ova of the rainbow trout, which can stand somewhat 
higher temperatures than the brown variety , were imported and 
875 fry raised from these were turned down in the Parson's valley 
stream. In July 1906 the Ceylon Fishing Club allowed their 
expert, Mr. H. 0. Wilson., to bring over 100 yearlings of the 
same variety. These travelled safely as far as Erode, but there 
the tram bringing a fresh supply of ice was late and they suffered 
severely. Eventually 21 survived i\\e journey and were put out 
in the Parson's valley stream. This water was subsequently- 
searched and fished from, the Krurmand crossing upwards, and the 
rainbow trout then seen and caug'ht (one was 14 inches long) 
proved beyond dispute that some of the fry put down in 1904 had 
bred there and that this fish can at last bo said to be established 
on the plateau. The stream contains an abundant food-supply 
and the high fall 313 at below the Krurmand crossing prevents the 
carp from the Paikara, lower down, from coming up to interfere 
with the trout. 

Grover anient have now obtained the services of Mr. Wilson 
to report on the measures necessary to check the indiscriminate 
slaughter of fish in the upper waters of the larger rivers of the 
district and to stock these with rainbow trout and other suitable 
&h. lie has found that the native poachers on the Bhavani 
(the account of whoso methods given above is partly taken from 
his reports) are rapidly emptying that river of all itsi k jsh ; 
proposes to improve the spawning-beds on the Parson's [jjlley 
stream by gravelling them and planting shadi* round thj|i||thas 
added to the scanty supply of fish food m the Avalancbl j|||Lm 



44 



THE jN'ILGLRIS. 



OHaf. I. by putting 1 down mollusoa there; is remodelling the Snowdon 
Zoology. hatchery on modern lines ; and is importing rainbow trout ova to 
he hatched there. He considers that of the many streams on the 
plateau the Billithida halla (which rises in the big hills just west 
of the Avalanche "bungalow and is one oi the chief sources of the 
Bhavanil is perhaps the most suitable for stocking. It contains 
excellent spawning-grounds and a large supply of fish food, and 
its temperature is unusually low. 

Beptileu. In Appendix IV to this chapter is given a list { of the 

reptiles — iiaards, snakes and frogs — as yet detected in the 
district. Of the venomous snakes, only two — Tnmeremrus 
strigatus and Gallophil nigrescms — usually ascend to the plateau, 
and they appear to be confined to the western and northern sides of 
it and to have never been met with near Ootacamand or Ooonoor. 
Frimeresurus anamaileimia and Ancistrodon hypnale are common in 
the moist forest and in coffee estates on the slopes, Nam bwigarws 
(the hill, oi" king, cobra) and the three species of Oallophis are 
very rare. Naia Iripudionn (the cobra), Bunyarus emrulem (the 
fcrait) and Vipera Ihmettn (the chain, or Russell's, viper) are 
common only about the foot of the hills. The last has once or 
twice been encountered near the top of the plateau The little 
Bchis (the carpet snake) is very numerous in rocky ground but not 
at any height. It is doubtful whether the Sulyso 'Elhotii (Tropido- 
notus plumbicolor) is really a Nilgiri snake Probably farther 
species remain to be detected on the western slopes of the plateau. 

Shells. ^ n Appendix V is a list 3 of the land and fresh-water shells of 

the district. The grand Ifehx ampulla and the fine Cyctophorus 
Nilgiriow are only found iu tho moist forest 011 the western 
elopes at from -3,000 to 4,000 feet. Both are very rare in 
collections and of considerable value Diplommaiina ', Jerd'Mta, 
Craepedotropis, Opigthoktoma } Oychphorm Shiplayi, and some 
of the Gyaihopomas, Strep tawix, many small Helices and some of 
the Achalinm abound in the sholas of the plateau. Helios 
Macterm'palana is common, on the grass land there, sometimes in 
association with Helix NUa-giricci and Buhmm Ntlagiricus. The 
three species of Pierocyelos are found, at or near the foot of the 
hills, and most of the Gyolophmi in the woods on the slopes 
(Risplra, Ooonoor, and Sigur ghats). There are very few fresh- 
water shells. NerHina PeroMkma occurs in some rivers on the 
plateau, and PahidinaJBenga/enm, Planorbis ezusim, &n.(LA7rupulhria 
ghbosa are found in tanks. 

1 Preporftfi for the original District Manual by Colonel It, H. Beddomo, 
tliea Conservator uf Forests, and oorteoterl by Mr. Thuiaton. The notes which, 
■follow are also the former's 

£ Also prepared by Colonel BodcLomo for fcho original Vixtnct Maimed 
and corrected by Mr. Thurston, 'jftefereaiee may also he made to bhe paper by 
v amm w. T. and H. ff. Bhofordm J.A.S.B., sjrfx (I860), U7-27. 



PHYSICAL DESOKH'TION. 



APPENDIX I. 



CRAP. I, 
Appendix I, 



Lmt of the flowering plants, ferns, and mosses found on the hills. 
DICOTYLEDONS. 

EANDHO UL AUEJE, 



Clomutis amilacifolia, Wall. 
,, Gouriana, Rotcb. 
Wightiana, Wall. 
Naraveliii zeylanica, BO. 
Anemone riviilana, Mam. 



Dilleaia mdica, I. 

„ braetrat-a, Wight. 



Miohelia Cbampaca, I. 
„ nilagirica, Zmtr. 



TbaUotrnm .layanioum, Bl. 
EannticahiB ronif orm is, Wall, 
(liffuBiis, DO. 
,, Walliohianns, Wight. 



DllLENIACEiE. 

r Dillenia pentagyiia, Uosh, 



MAtiNOXiIACEil'., 

! Kadsura WigbMaua, Am. 



Uvaria zeylanica, L. 

Artabofcrys zeylamcitB, 0. /. et T. 

Uuona pannosa, Dais. 

Polyalthis- coffeoides, Benth. ei BJc.f. 
„ fragrans, Be nth, et TI, J: 

„ cerasoidee, Bentli. et B.f, 

„ Kormti, Smth. et M. f. 
„ suberosa, Benth. et H. J. 

Phajantihus raalabariras, Bedd. 



GS-o mot balanitis wynaa-deusis, Bedd. 
Miiiusa indioa, Lesch. 

■„ nilagirica, Bedd. 
Saccopetalum toneatosnm, B, /. et T. 
Alphonaea latea, B.f. et T. 

„ madraspatana, Bedd. 

Oropbea Thomson!, Bedd. 
Booagea Dalzellii, II. f. et T. 



MEMS PERM ACM. 



Tinospova mal&bariea, Mters. 

., cordifolia, Miers. Tonic 

and diuretic.- 1 
Anamirtacoecnlns, W.etA. Poisonous, 

used as ointment.. 
Tiliscora factjujosa, Ooleh: 



CuCtiuJus maorociaipus, WfJ. 
Ooeeuhis viHoaua, DC. 
Stepliania rottrada, Lour. 

„ heraandifolia, Wulp. 
GiSBarapBlos Pareira, Linn. 
(Jyclea peltaia, II. /. et T. 



Borbfcii-is nopalonftiK, Spr. 



Berberis ansta-fca DO, Tonic 
febrifrtge ; yields a yellow dye. 



PAPAVE»ACJ3JE. 



mexicana, L. Frcsb juice used for muscular pams ; oil of seeds 
employed in s-,kin diseases, 

1 This sad the other notes regarding tie properties itnd. uses of tie plants are 
taken from the paper contributed to the original District Mmiial by Surgeon- 
Major Bidie, M.B., tben in charge of the Madras Government Museum, 



46 



THb NILQIEIS. 



OH A P. I. 

Appendix I. 



Fnniaria parvrflora, Lamlc. 



Crugsferm. 



Nasturtium officinale, Br. This 

fche next yield edible oresny&. 
Nasturtium indionm, DO, 
OardamiuG afrieana, L t 



Cleoinc monophylla, L, 

j, ciaeosa, X, 
GynaadropBiB pentaphylla, DC, 

of leaves a rubefacient. 
Niebuhria linearis, 1)0. 
Oratceva religioaa, IPort-t. 
Oudaba indioa. Xamft. 
Oappans grandiiiora, Wall, 



Viola Patrinii, JDC. 
,j serpens, W«^. 



Cardamme subumbellata, Hook, 

„ hirsuta, JO, 

Capsella Burua-pastoris, Maencli. 
Lepidiura Batirum, £. 



Cappaii; 



zeylaniea,, £i««. 
d.ivarioata, X-amk. 
apbylla, lloth. 
Boxburgbii, -DO 
grandisj L. f. 
horrida, L./. 
tenera, 1>al%. 



ViOLACEiK. 

| lomdraio suHrutieoBtuii, Owg. 



Cooblospermum Gossypium, I>C. 
Scolopia crenata, OZos. 
Flacotirtia montana, Qruh. 



Flacourtiit sepiaria. BoiE&. 
HydnocarpuB Wightiawa, Bl- 
,, alpi»a, Tf&gJt*. 



FrrTOKPORGa;. 



Pittospornra fcetrasp 
nilffhirc 



nrnnn, Ffg- .4. 
iss, IK et A. 



Pittoaponim lloribtmdmn, W. &t J, 



Polygala annate, Mom. 
„ javana, DC. 
„ leptalea, DO. 
„ persicarlsefoJia, J 
„ erioptera, DO. 
,, elongata, S^ewt. 



Silsme gallica, L. 
Cerasbinm mdioaiDj TV. ei ^ 

„ vulgafctini, £. 
Sfeellaria paniculata, M&g- 
St-eHana uligiuosa, L. 



Polygale*. 

Polygala ehin&nais, ii, 

,, aibirioa, L. 

,. tele phi oide*, Wtllct. 
Sstlotiionia oblongit'olia, 2X7. 
Xanthophyllum flaveeuentij itosib. 



C'AKSOPllYIiLE,^ 



Arenana ueoigorruusis, [f'S'.'t. 
Sporgula (irvensis, L, 
Drymaria cordaH, fFiWd. 
Polycarptea spicafca, W & A. 



PoBTDl^ACAOffi/K. 

PorLnlaoa oleracati, X- Loaves of this j PorhjlaciL Wighliana, JKtfW. 



and the next are eateo as greens. 



Siatine amerioana, Arnt. 
Bergia aiamaatiioidee, Bm&, 



Taliauto cunfiifolium, IFilUl, 
2S&.VHNBS, 

I Bergia verfcieellatft, TRH3. 



PHYSICAL SMOBIFTIOH. 



47 



Hypbbicisbje. 



Hypericum mysorense, Seyne. 

„ Hookeriannm, W.stA. 

„ hnmifusma, L. 



Hypericum napanlenee, Ghoi3ij. 
i, japomoarr , Thumb. 



CHAP. I, 
Appendix I. 



Qavoinia Cambodia, Sesrouhs. This and 1 
the next yield gamboge, a drastic ■ 
purgative and pigment, ! 

Garcinia MorelU, Vei 



ovalifolie., Hookf 



Calopkyilun 
Calopbyllun 



fcoinentoBiim, W. 
Wightianum, Wall. 
Walkeri, TKipR 
!■, Linn, 



Ponoilonenron indiouin, Bedd. 



Terastrdmia japonioa, Thunb, 
"Eurya japonica, Tkunb. 



Tkrnsthomiace^, 

j Gordonia obtusa, Wall, 



DlP'JEEOCABPEJE. 



Dipterocarpna turbinates, GVst The 
gurjuu balsam ; oil used its leprosy. 
Ancistrocladns Heyneanue, Wall. 
Vatica Eoxburghianfi, SI. 
Shorea Talura, Rovb, 



Hopea parviflora., Bedd. 
Wighfciana, Wall. 

„ MfJabarica, Bedd. 
Vateria indiea, L. Fields white 

dnmnier allied to copal. 



Malva vertiiiiMata, L. 
Sida Immilis, WtUd. 
„ mysorenais, W. e t A . 
„ spinosa, L. 
„ carpinifolia, L, 
„ rhombifolia, X. 
„ oordifolia, L. 
Ablitilon asiaticnin, 0. Don. 
„ indicum, Q. Don. 
,, graTeolenS) W. et A. 
„ crispjm, {?, Don. 
„ neilgherrensp, Mtmro. 
Urena lobata, L. 
,, sinnata. L. 
„ repanda, lloxh. 
Pavoma gleehomifo'lia, A. Rich. 

„ odorafa, Willd. 
Peoajschistia fcrilohnta, Wight. 



Decasehistia ovotonifoHa, W. et A. 
Hibiscus Solandra, L'Her. 
„ eanesceus, Beyne. 
„ lunariifolius, Willd. 
„ pandura*formJs. Bwm. 
,, vitifoliua, L. 
,, cann&bmns, L. Deecan 

hemp ; yiolds good fibre. 
,, anguloBHs, Mast. 
Tkespesia, Lampas, Dalz. and, Qibs. 
Kydia ealycina, Ro$b, 
Bombax malabaricam, DC Gum 
astringent ; fruit yields silk-cotton, 
Eriodendioii anfractuosuin, DO. 
Ovaries used as condiments; yield* 
gum and silk-cotton. 
Cullenia exeelsa, Wight. 



STEHCHIiIACE^i. 



Sfeoronlia fietida, L, Seeds yield oil 

and are eaten j bark aperient. 
Sfcerottlia nrona, 'Boteh. 

„ villosa, Roxb. 

„ guttata, Boao, 

„ oolorata, Hoxh. 
Helicteres Isora, L. 
Pterosperurara Heyneanura, Wall. 



PterOBjiermnm glabreseens, W. et A . 
IQriolEGiia, Bookeriana, W. at A. 

„ Cfuinqneloenlaris, Wight. 
Melhania ineana, Heyiie. 

„ cannabina, Wights 
Meloobia corchorifolia, L. 
Walthcria indica, Ji, 
Leptonychja moaettrxoicles, Bedd, 



48 



THE KILGXKI8. 



CHAP. I. 

A-l'PKKUIS J. 



-inviii colunsniiria, <5w, 
j, emarginata, W. ei A. 
,, populiHolia, Vahl, 
„ aalvifolia, Beyne. 
„ orljicnlata, Uottl. 
„ tiliiBfolia, Vahl. 
,, pilosa, Lam, 

villosa, TFtlU. 
,, multiiiora, -fat as. 
,, hu-vigS'ta, Vahl. 
,, abutili folia, Jum--. 



Tviumfetta xjiloea, Roth. 

,, vhombuidea, /acq. 

,, i-otundifolia, Znm. 

Corohoras olitorius, X. 

,, trilocularis, L. 
EliBocaxpus oblongne, Gssrtn. Kevncjle 

of seeds are eaten lake almonds. 
Elreooarpns tubereulatus, B,o%b. 
,. rugosus, Roxb. 

fervagmena, Wight. 
,. Munronii, Mant. 



Uaum mysormise, Heyne, 
Beimrardtia frrigyna, Planch, 



Hugonia Myata.s s L. 
Erytlu'oxylon monogynum, Rotsb, 



Mi.LpiaKIACE/Ji;, 

Hiptage Madablofca, Qxrhi. 



Geranium nepalense, Bv>. 
Gxalis oovniculata, LMn. 
Biopb.ytum polyphyllom, Mimro. 
Xtttpatiens acaulis, Aniott, 
Beddotuei, Hit, f, 

,, IjGvhigei, Gamble. 

,, modeBte, IFiff?!*. 

,. Deiusomi, Beckl. 

,, Lawsonij Hi./. 

, , orobioides, Ssdd, 

„ Jcxdonisa, Wight. 

t , flhinensiB, Z. 

„ drversifolist, Wight. 

„ Kleinii, W. $T ■&• 

t , tenella, Bif^wf, 

„ iuconapicna, Be«f??. 



I Irapations oppositit'olia, Ziwni. 

j ,, fcomentosa, Heyne. 

\ ,, Gardneriana,, Wight. 

' ,, Leeokenanltii, H>"«?f, 

] „ lafcifolia, Z. 

] ,, eusjjidiita, Wight. 

| ,, floribtinda, Wight. 

\ j, lueida, fleyne. 

I ,, scabriusciila, J/eyne. 

I „ dasyaperma, Wight, 

I ,, Muni'Oiiii, Wight. 

', „ Henslovia&a, ^rn. 

1 ,, fmticosa, DC. 

I ,, caiup&nulata, Wight. 

; „ Goughii, Wight. 

I ., maculata, Wight, 



Evodia Eosbiu-g-hiana, Benth. 

Melicope indioa, JPtgTiS. 

Kanf;hOKyU)n, oyalifolram, Wujld. 

„ tetraspermum, W.ntA. 

„ ■Jllietsa, DO. 

Toddalia aonlea^a, Pera. KooCe yield 
yellow dye an5 thfiii" hark is a stimu- 
lant and £elm£ugc. 

AoronycMa liui'ifolia, BE. 

G-lyoosmie pent&phyHa, Cw. 

Jvlurraya exofjea, X, 

Okuaena Willd&ticrvii, W fy A. 

Itimonia acidissima, I. A very acid 
litao. 



Limoaia alata, IF. ef^. 
Luviingra eleutheraadi'a, J)aX%. 
.Parainignya nionophylla, TF*y ft ^ 
Atalaatia monopbylla, Gcrr, 
„ racemosa, TT. eif 4. 

„ Geylanioa, Oliv. 

Oitrue Anrantiu'ia, Z. The ovaitge. 
ffevoaiti Elephantum. Coir, Palp is 

eaten; liaJJ-rijuj fruit astringent, 
Mgl-Q MarmeloB, Corf, Bad-fruit ; 

greon fruit assd in. dyeenteiy j rinfi 

yi«lds yellow dye. 



Simabubbjb. 
Ailanthas exoelsa, 5oi»6. 



Ocbna squaiTosa, t. 



Boewellia serrata, Jioicfr. 
Garuga pi^mata, Roseb. 
Balaamodendron Berryi, Am, 



PHYSICAL BESOHIPTION. 
OdHNACESS. 

) Gompbia anguBtifolia, Yahl. 

BUHSFSAGBiB. 

I Protium caudatimi, W. et A. 



Oanarium strictum, Bomb. 



Melt AC hue. 



Naregamia- alata, W. et A . 
Munvoma Walliciiii, Wight 
Melia Azadivaehfra, L. Margosa 

yield oil. 
Meha Aaedarach, Z. Leave 

green colouring matter. 
Cipadesaa irutioosa, Bl. 
Dyaoxylum malabaricnm, Bedd. 
Aglaia Roxburghiana. Mig, 



Lansinm anamalayamim, Beds,. 
Amoora B,ohifcuka, W et A. 
seeds Walsnra piacidia, .Roa:6. 
Heynea trijnga, Hoosb. 
contain Beddomea indica, Hook f. 

„ smiplicifolia, Bedd. 

Soymida frebrifaga, Adr. Juss. 
Chickrassia tabularis, Adr, Juss. 
Cedrela Toona, Bosib. 
CMoroxylon Swietenia, DC. 

CHAlELBTIAOBai. 
Obiiilletia gelomoides, Iloolcf. 



CHAP. I, 
Appendix I 



Olax Wightiana, Wall, 
Cansjerat Slioedii, Gmel. 
Opilia aruentacea, Roxh. 
flomphandra axillaris) Wall. 

„ polymorpha, Wight, 



Apodyt.es Benthamiana, Wight. 

,, Beddomei, Mast, 
Mappia fostida, Mi&rs. 
Saraostigma Kleinii, W, et A. 



Ilex malabariea, Bedd. 
„ fJenfcicidafca, Wall. 



lies Gardnenana, Wight. 
„ Wiglitiana, Wall. 



(jELASTHINEiE. 



Knonynvus indicus, Ueyne. 
„ creiml&tus, Wall. 

„ serrafcifolius, Bedd 

„ angnlatua, Wight. 

Gflyptopetaliim grandiflormn, Bedd. 

Microtropis latifolia, Wi'jht. 
„ ramtflora, Wight 

„ denaifi ora, Wight, 

,, microoarpa, Wight. 

„ ovalifoUa, Wight. 



Voritilagomadraejjataim, Gcssriin, Root- 
bark a valuable dye. 
Yentilago bombaiensis, X)alz. 
Ziayphas 3'ajaba, Zamk. The jujube- 

ferit ; bark used by dyers, 
Zissyplms glabrata, Heyne. 
„ nummulana, TF. si A. 

„ CEnopliaj Mill. 

„ xylopyrnpj WUIA, 



Lophopetaluin Wig'htianum, Ami, 
Pleurostylia Wiglrtii, W. et A. 
Ce'asfcrna panioulata, Willd. Oil 

acode used in beri-beri. 
(rymnoaporia emargmata, Both. 

„ raontana, Rovh, 

Ektiiidenclron glauoum, Pers. 
Hippocratea obtusifoiia, Uczh. 
Salaoia prmoidee, SO. 

„ oblonga, Wall. 

Sisyphus incurva, Bnaib, 

„ homda, Both. 

„ rugosa, Zwmk, 

Rhamnns Wighfcii, IK. et A. 
Scutia inditsa, Brongn, 
Sagerotia oppositaEolia, Brongn, 
Golubriira asiatica, Brongn. 
Gfouartia mierocarpa, B>Q. 



50 



THE miGtiaiB. 



OHAP. I. 

Appendix I, y itifi quadrangularis, Wall, 

„ repcng, W.ctA. 

., discolor, Dcdz. 

„ adnata, W-ull 

,, tomantoBit, II owe, 

, latifolifc, Soa;S. 

, inclu\i. L. 



AifPELIDEiE. 



Rlioedei, ff,e«i, 
,, himalayana-, Bramd. 
,, atirioalata, Jioarb. 
., lanceolaria, Eossb. 
., pcdata, P"a?ii. 
Leea snaoirophylla, Ro®b. 
„ sambnonia, Willd. 



OardiospPTmnm Halicacabum, X. 
,. canescPHR, (T^// 

[Jemigyrosa deiicioiiSj Bsr.Etf. 
"Erioglossum odule, B£. 
Allophyllns Cobbc, SI. 
Sehleielifira trijuyn, Willd, 



Snpindus erectus, Tliern. 
Nephelium Lcragana, Camb, 
Hai'pulia cupanoides, llnxb. 
Dodoncca visoosa, Linn. 
Turpina poaiifera, DO. 



Mflliosma pungens, Wall. 
„ airapKcifolia, Roxb. 



] Malioaraa Avnottiana, XViglif. 



AKAeAfilllACI!.*. 



Ehus mysorensis, Heyne. 

JSIangifera indica, Z. 

Bnehanania Jafcifolia, Rossi. The 

Cnddapah almond ; bark need by 

dyers and tannors. 
Odina Wodier, But?;. Bark need io skin 

diseases. 



Semecarpus Anacardiam, L. .Tnioa of 

nut used with lime aa marking-infe . 
Holigama Grahamii, Hook, f. 
ffoligasna longifoliaj Rosb. 
Notbopegia Oolebrookiana, B?. 
Spondias mangifera. Per?. 



CoHSAEACE.E, 

Connarus monooarpuB) L. 



Crotalaria. biflora,, L. 

,, httmifasa, &rnh. 

„ aeiciilaris, Horn. 

,, evolvuloMea, Wight, 
„ rubiginosa, Willd. 

„ „ varieties, scab' 

rolla and Wightiazia. 
birta, F*«d. 
„ mysorensis, Roth, 

„ nlbidaj Heane. 

„ nana. Sunn, 

, s Imifolia, X. 

,j teota, KofTw 

lt oalyciua, ScAtohS;, 

, speoiosa, Hey/ie, 

dn.bia s <?raft. 



Ctater Pwpilianacess. 

Crotalaria retuaa, I. 

sericea, Beia. 



Leschenaiilfcii, DC. 
formosa, Grail. 
barbata. &rdh. 
long^pea, W. $ A. 
verrucosa, Z, 
ssmperfiorens, Vent. 
jancea, JJ. 
obteofca, Qrah, 
aiadurenBis, Wight, 
fiilva, Mo$b, 
ptucherriixia, &o:i-h . 
Hobonii, W. § A. 
olavatar, W. & A. 
loburnit'olia. X. 



Pi-IYSIGAL DKSOJUMICW. 



] j E G II M I N O 8j£ — COnt. 
''•Order Papilionacese — coat. 



CHAP. I. 
ApPEKDIX I. 



Trifolitm rupees, L. 
Parochetus cimunums, flam? It. 
Indigofera cordifoba, Heyne. 
„ enueaphylia, I*. 
,, uniflora, Hayntlt. 

,. penfcapbylla, L. 

,, visoosa, Lam. 

,, tenuifolia, Eoitl. 
., pedicellata, W. fy A. 

,, unlralata, Vahl, 

„ par vi flora, Metme. 

., argcntea, %>• var. eoerulea. 

,, pulohella, Roxb. 

Paorslea coryhfolia, L. 
Milletia splendens, W. § A . 
Mundulea suberosa, Benth. 
Tephrosia calopbylla, BeM, 
,, tmefcoria, Pen. 
„ purpurea, Pers. var, piunila. 
,, villosa, Pers.-va.i-. incati!). 
CS-eissapsis cristata, W. $■ A. 
Zoroia diphylla, Pen-: 
Smitliia eetulosa, Bafa, 
,, gracilis, Benth. 
„ oapifcafca, Dak. 
,. blaiida, Wall. 
Leptodesmia oongesta, Benth. 
Pyenospora hedyaarioidea, R. Br. 
Paeudarthria Tiscida, W. # A. 
Alysiearpus monolifar. DQ. 

„ vaginalis, DO. var, iram- 

mulari-folitis. 
„ nigosus, DO. 

„ „ var. atyracifolius. 

,, belgamn enBie. Wigh. var. 

racemosns. 
Oligemia dalbergioides, Benth. 
Desniodiuin Cepbalotes, Wall. 
„ triquefcmm, DQ, 

Scalps, DO. 
,, iatifolinm, T>G. 

„ Wigbfeii, CfraJi. 

„ rnfescens, DG. 

„ polycarpuHa, DG. 

„ bofcerophylhim, DO, 

gyrans, DG. 



Abrus procatorius, Z 
Shntei-ia vesica, W.§-A, 
Dnmasia -villosa, DC. 
Teramnus labialie, Sp) . 
MuouDa naonosperma, DC. 

„ giganten, DG. 
Erytlirina indica, Lam. 
„ atrieta, lioxh. 
„ suberosa, Boxb. 

G-alaotia tonuiflora, W.$r A. 
Spatiholobus Raxlmrghii, TS&nth. 
Bntea fvondosa, Roxb. 
Catiavalia ensiformis, DG , 
Pnera,na tuberosa, DG. 
PhaBeolae JWnngo, L. 

., trinervius, Heytie, 
Yigna Wightii, Bent?) . 
Clitovia Ternatea, L. 
Doliuhoa ciliatus, Kfa'M. 
,, falcatus, Xlewi. 
A tylosis Candollei, W. $ A. 
„ albicans, Benih. 
„ rngosa, W. fy A 
„ soarabfaoidea, Benth. 
Dtmbaria ferrnginsa, W- # A. 

„ Heynei, W. $ A. 
Oylista seariosa, A^t. 
Rhyuoboaia filipes, Benth. 
„ minima, DC- 

,. velntraa 3 W $ A. 

,, sericea, Spcmoghe. 

Fleoaingia Grabamiana, W§ A. 
„ oongestaj Bomb. 
„ vestiSa, Benth var. nilgheri- 
ensiB. 
Dalbergia latifolia, Roasb. 
„ lanceolaria, L. 
„ panionlata, Zoteb. 
Pterooarpus Marsnpiam., Roxl>. 
Pongamia glabra, Vent, 
Derris scandons, Benth. 
„ oblong^ Benth, 
Sophora glauoa, Leach. 

„ beptaphylla, Liim. 
Oalptirnia aurea, Baker. 



Sub.Or&er GsssaXpinm. 
CiBsalpiiiia N-aga. Ait, [ Pfcerolobium indioam, Rich 

„ mimosoidee, Lam. Poinciana alat-a, Unn, 

Me*oneupnm oTiouIlatam, W#A, \ Wagatea spicata, Dala. 



52 



TI-lE NILG1BIB. 



CHAP. I. 
Appsxmx I 



Leg umincis.*;— eon* 
iS»6- Order Osssalpimss — cont. 



jfihsia Msfcnla, Linvi l 

ocoidentahs, Linn. i 

aaricnlata, Jjiw-ji. j 

tomenfcoaa, £?»«. j 

montana, Heyne. I 

timoriensis, DO. j 

pamila, ifi)ro. I „ 

Kleimi, IP. <$• J. | „ 

miaiosoidea, L | .1 

„ var. W;illiohiai>». 1 -> 

Hardwickia bircafca, Soxb. 

Sub-Order Mi,)W3& 



Hardwicfeia pmnata, Boxb. 
Tamarindns indica, L. 
TIamboldfcia Brunonis, Wall. 
Vahiianii, Wight. 
Baabima. racemoaa, Larni. 

,, malabarica, lloxb. 

Vablii, Wit A. 

„ pbocuicea, Rei/iw. 

,, purpurea, Linn. 

,, variegate, Liw.it. 



Xylia dolabriformis, Ben(/t. 
Bnfcada eoandens, Benift. 
ProBOpie spicigera, Jk-rm. 
Diohrostaoliys ciaerea, W § A. 
llimosa rubsieaaltB, £«m. 
Acacia arabica, WiUd. 

„ leucopMeea, Wiild. 

,, Soadja, DC. 

„ femiginea, DO. 



A caoia Instia, ffiUd. var, oaesia. 

„ penmita, WiUA. 
Albiazia Lebbplt, Bentli. 

,, odoj-atlaaiiua, Bewifi. 

„ prooera, Bew.tR. 

,, smpalafca, Bove 

„ amara, Boiv. 
Pitlieoolobium duloe, Smith, 

, bigcminam, Bewth, 



Parinarium iodioum, Bedd. 

i'yg&um Wigb-feiamim, Til. 

Hnbos moluecaiius, L. 
, filliptioua, Sm, 
,, laaiocarpus, Sm. 
„ raoemoaae, Ilozb, 

SVagama indioa, An&r. 

„ nilgerrenaia, Schldl. 



PotentilUi Leschenaultxaua, Ser. 

„ Kleiuiana, W. $ A. 

,. supina, Linn. 

Alehfemilla indica, Cfarcfw. 
ftoea LeseKeuaultiana, W, <$• J. 
Photinia Lindleyana, W. $ A, 

„ Notoniana, W. $ A. 
Cotoncastei' buxi'folia a Wall. 



Paranaaaia "Wigiitiana, JKaK. 



OaAssuLAOEa;. 



Bryoplij-Iinin calycixitmi. S(i^a6. 
Kalancboe gruadiflora, W, $ A, 



Ealanchoe laemiata, DO. 



Dvoseia Burmanin, PaJii. 
„ indioa, £. 



tJftOSEBACE^!. 

I Brosara paltata, Sinith, 



Mynopbylluro intermedium, DC. 



Ha/IiOSAGEJE, 

Callitnolie stagtialis, Scop. 



B.BI20 PHOEBE. 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



Tcrininalia Catappa, L. 

beleriea, Roxb. 
Chebula, Uetx. 
Arjnna, JSedd. 
fomenfcona, Bedd. 
paniculata, Both. 



COMBHETACEjE. 



j AiiogeiseuH latii'oUa, WaV. 

! Combrefium ovalif oliam, Roxb, 
! „ exteusum, Sostb, 

j Qirisqualis maUbarioa, Bedd. 

I GyrocavpUB Jaequini, Uosth. 



53 



CHAP. I. 

■APl'LNDXJfl, 



Psidimu Guyana, L. 
Hhodomyrtns tomeniosa. IFtg/ti. 
Eugenia Munronii, TT*j/ii. 

bemispherica, Wight. 

Iseta, Ham. var, panoitlora. 

Arnottiana, Wig?it, 

"Wightiana, TBg/rf. 

zeylanioa, Wight. 

montana,, n%Jii, 

caryopbylltea, TP'ij?(i. 



"Eiigeiuarovuliii.a, Wight. 

., calophylhfolia, WVi//»f- 

,, roalabarica, Bedd. 

„ Jambolana, Lamk. 

,, bracfceafca, Rt>,oh. 

„ argentea, Bcdd. 
„ Mocmiana, TFig/if. 
Barringhonia raoemoaa, Bl. 
Caveva atboi-^a, Rush. 



MeIASTOMACMS 



OHbeokia cupularis, Don. 

., aspera, Bl. 

„ Wightiana, BenlTi. 

„ Lesehenaultiana, DC. 

„ Wynaadensis, 0. 0. Glarle. 
Melastoma malabafchriouTn, '£. 
Soaerila Bpeciosa, Zenk. 



Sonerila graadifiora, Wall. 

„ elegane, Wight, 

„ versicolor, Wight, 

„ "WaUiehii, Bemi. 
Modinilla Bsddoznoi, C. S. Ohrke-. 

„ nialabarioa, Bedd. 
Momecylon ednle, Roxb, var. typiea. 



Woodfordia floribtmda, Salixh, 
Lagerstrtemia parviflora, Bomb. 



Lagerstrosniia lanoeolata, Wall. 

„ ITIos—B.eg'inse, Beta. 



Jassicua autfruticoaa , L. 
Imdwigia proetrata, Boa*. 



ONAGIRAl'IS/E. 

| Circasa. alpaut, Wight. 



ia eseufenta, iioari*. 
tomentosa, Bo»6. 



i Caseuria Wynadeneis, Bedd. 
I Komalmm Heylaniouin, Smth. 



Passitiora Leach enaaltii, DO. 



Trieliosaiifches palmata, Roxb. 
Gymnopefcafcmi Wigbtii, Am. 
liaMa aogyptdaoa-, Mill. 
Momorflica dioicfi, Eqj;I>. 
Cucurais pabeseeiis, TFW. 
Citrallus Oolocyntbis. Bchrad. 
OephaJaudra infiiea, JEfowJ. 



| Modceca WigOifciana, TKaHv 

OUOtrSBITACEilii. 

Iryoaia laciniosa, £. 
Mnkia scabrella, Am. 

„ loiosperma, 27iie. 
Ketmeria Eaneriaaaj Sndl. 
Ctenolepis Garorai, Nwu&. 
Si&nonia incliea, -£. 



54 



THE OTLGXHS. 



CHAP. I. 

A.PPJCNDIX I. 



Begonia fallax. A. DO. 
,, ovenaba, Dryamd. 



foma subpeltafca, Wight 
„ malabai'ica, La-mk, 



Tetramoles nndiflora, R.B». 



Mollngo S pergola, L. 



FlCOIDE/E, 

| (iisekia pharnaceoidei 



Hydrocatyle javaiiica, TAw/hI*. 

„ conferfca, TFjjj7tt. 

„ rotnndi folia, Roxb. 

Sanicula. europKia, £. 
Buplenmm plaotaginifolium, Wight. 

„ nraeronatom, TF, § A. 



Buplearnm dlaticbophyllum, W. $ A, 
Pimpmella Lesohenanlfcii, DO. 

„ Candolleana, W. §■ A. 
Heracloum Hookeriannni, W.tyA. 

„ rigens, Wall. 

„ SpreugelJanaiu, W. § A. 



Aralia malabai'ica, Bed&. 
.Pentapaaas: Lesokenaultii, £ 
Polyecias acuminata, Worst 
Heptapleurum roetratum, E 



Alangima Lumarckii, Thio. 



AEAHACEffi. 



Heptaplearum racfimosnm, Bedel. 
,, venulosam, Seem, 

., stella turn, Gsertn. 



OoRSACS/E. 

| Masfcixia arborua, 0. B, Clarke. 



GAJPBII-GLIACMi. 



Viburnum punetafrainj H»m. 
,, eoriaceom, Si. 
„ hebanthmn, W. $ A, 



"Viburnum ernbesoens, Wall. 

Lonioera Lesebeuaulfcii, Wall. 

„ ligustrica, Wall. 



Eobi 


ICB^G. 


AnthoeephalfcB Cadamba, Miq, 


Hedyotae pramosa, W. # -1. 


Adiaa cordifolia, Eooft.f, 


,, hirsutissima. Bedd, 


Slephegyne parvifoKa, Korih. 


„ verticillai'is, 7F #■ X. 


ETaiiclea purpurea, JJosfc. 


„ Lawsouire, IK <j- ^ 


HymenodietyoB exeelsum, Wail. 


„ Aurieularia, £. 


„ obovatom, WtfH, 


„ nitida, W. f A . 


Wumllandia Koiioniaua, Wall. 


Oldonlandia Heymi, Br. 


DenteUiii repensj .For**. 


,, aspora, SG. 


Argostemma courfcallGnsa, Am. 


Anotis Lesohena-aitiaiia, IV. § 


Neurooalya: Wightii, -4r«. 


,, Rheedij, W.fA. 


Fergasocia Beylaniea, Uook,y. 


„ Fcetida, Dalz, 


Hedyotis feutioosa, £. • 


„ Wightiana, Wall. 


„ stylosa, .Br. 


„ monospenas, W. $ A. 


„ articularfe, ifr. 





PHYSICAL DEICE1FH0K. 



55 



Rubiacbje— emt. 



Ophiorrhiza HungOB, L. 

,, Harrisiana, Heym var 

argentea. 
., Brimonis, W. # A, 

„ his-sutula, Wight, 

Itussaenda frondosa, Linn. 
Webera corymbosa, Willi. 

„ laceiiB, Boole, f. 

„ nCagirioa, Hook. f. 
Bandia malabarica, Lamb. 

„ rugulosa, 2hiv. vav Rp«ciosa. 
Gardenia lucida, Koa:f>. 

g-uoraiifera, L.f. 

„ latifolia, Ait. 

Diplospora apioearpa, Dalz. 
Knoxia corymbosa, Will A. 

,, Wightiana, Wall. 
Oantliitim didyimrm,.Kofls&. 

,j umbellafcum, Wight. 

„ iieilgliarrsiisG, Wight, 

„ Rheedii, DO. 

„ angnsfcifolimn, Roxb. 

„ par viiior lira, iJGWfc, 

Is or a laneeolarattj Colebr. 

,, Sofconiana, Wail. 

„ parviilora, FaftZ. 

„ nigvioans, Sr. 



Pavetta mdioa, L. 

hiapidula, W. § A. 
„ breviftora, DO. 
,. Bruaoms, Wall. 
„ Wightli, RooTc.f. 
Morinda nmbellata, L, 
Psychofcria oongesta, W. $ A. 
,, elongata, Wight. 
„ bisulcata, W. §■ A. 
Cflasalia curviilors, Thw. 
G-eopbila reniformis, Don. 
LaBianthus Jaclaanus, Wight. 
,. oilianis, Wight. 
„ acumiiiatus, Wight, 
„ ventiloKQS, Wight, 
„ oapituIatuB, Wight. 
Baprosma indieum, Dates. 
„ fragrans, Bedd. 

„ cBylamcum, Re&A, 
Hamiltonia suaveolenB, Eos&. 
Spennoaoce etriota, Linn, f. 
,, ooymoides, Burnt, 
,, hispida, L. 
JJnbia uordifolia, L. 
Galium roitmdiEolmm. var, javanic 
MoIIqm, L. 



OHAP, I, 

Appendix I. 



Y^LEElANEiM. 



Valeriana Hardwiekii, Wall. var. 

Arootfciana. 

,, HookerianB, W 8[ A. 



Valeriana LeBohenaultii, DO. 

„ „ var, Branociana. 



Dipbacsje. 
Dipsacns LeflohenauHiii, Cotdt, 



Oentratherum refcieulatum, Benth . 
Vernonia malabaiiea, Hoc*. /, 

cinerea, Less, 

SiverganSj Benth. 

Caadolleaaa, IF. §■ A . 

elseagnifolia, DO. 

hiclica, Clarke. 

peofciaiforaiia, DO. 

arborea, Ham. 
Elepbantopas scaber, L. 
Adenoetetnma viaooBura, Worst. 
Ageratnm conyzoides, £. 
BicbrocGphala latifolia, DO. 

„ cbryfianthemi^olia, BO. 

Cyafchooiine lyrata, Oass. 
Cfcangea maderaspataaaj Pair, 



Myriaotia Wightii, DO. 
Erigaron. alpiiias, L. 
Oonyza stricta, Wtlld, 
Blumea neilgherrenais, Hooh. f, 

„ fcieraeifolia, DO. 

„ laoiniata, DC 

,, virensj DC. 

„ membranacaa, DO. 

„ flexuosa, Qlarke. 
Laggera aJata, Sehv-ltz. 

, : pfcorodonta, Benth. 
Piuohea tomentosa, DO. 
Spbsei authus indiana, £, 
Anaphalis oblonga, DO. 

„ Kotoniana, DO. 

„ aristata, DO, 



56 



THE NILGI3U8. 



CHAP. I. 

Appehbix I. 



Composite— cows. 



AnaphaliR Wightiana, DC. 

j, maroeacens, Clarice. 

„ neelglierriana, DC 
G-naphalium hypoleneura DC. 

„ iadictiin, ■£". 

Heliehrysum buddleioidest, DC. 

Vnghtii. Clarhe, 
Vicoa imriculata, Cass. 
Carposram cerimnm, £, var. nilagiri- 

Chrysoffonum hefcerophyllum, JBenth. 

,, Arnofcciantiru, Be nth, 

Xanfchium Sfcrumariuin, L 
Siegesbocki a orientalis, I. 
Eolipfca alba, Hassle. 
Wedelia urfcicsefoHa, DC 

biflora, DC. 
Spilanthes ActQellftj S. 
Glossocardia linaarifolia, Cass. 
Bidens pilosa, X, 
Centipeda, orbieulai'ia, Zour. 
Artemisia parviSorajBoajb. 

„ vulgaris, L. 
Gynura nitida, DQ. 
Emilia soncTiii'olia, DC. 



Emilia eoncMt'oHa, DC. vat\ SoabrA, 
Nitowta grandifiora, DC. 

,, Walkeri, Clarke. 
Seneeio nilgheryn'ifiB, DC. 

„ lavanchtUefoliaB, DC, 

„ saxatilia, Vfaii. 

„ polycephalus, Clarke, 

,, Lessingiantis, Ghrke. 

,, Holietiaokeri, JS'ooft, /. 

,j teuuUolias, £»*■)». 

„ Edgeworthii, Hook. f. 
araneosos, DC. 

,. corymbosus, Walt. 

„ scandens, Don-, 
eandieana, PC. 
Onicua Walliclii, DO. 
Volutarellii, divaricate, Benth. 
Picrie hleraoioides, L. 
Orepis aeaolia, Hooh f. 
Taraxacum officinale, Wigg, 
Laetuca Beymeana, DC. 

,, hastata. DC 
eracens, £. 
iTensip, X, 



CampAnUeace#. 



Campanula oolorata, Wall, 
,. Alphonsii, Wall. 

„ falgena, Wall. 



Lobelia trigona, Roxb, 

„ nioofcianiBi'oIia, Heyne. 
„ excelsa, Leaohen. 
WaMenbergia gracilis, DO. 

Vacciniacek. 
Vaocmium n%hsprenie, Wight. | Vasotonin Leschenaulftii, Wight. 

EBIOACB/E. 
Gaulthwia ffagranfciflBima, Wall. | Bhodofondron arbormim, firo. 



Lysimachia Lesehennulfcii, Duby. 
„ del+oides, Wight. 



pREMFLACEJE. 

I AnagalKfl 



MYHSINSffi. 



MiCHa indica, Wall. 

Kyrsine capitellata, Wall. vai\ Lance- 

olata. 
Embplia Pibes, Bnrra. 
;l robnstn, Boa'', 



Embelia viriditlora, Sehiff. 

„ G-ardneriana, TTi;^. 
Ardieia pauoiflora, Beyne, 

„ huroOis, Vahl, 
Antisfcropbe serratifoli»j Haok.f, 



ObryaophyHnm Roxbnygbii, Dcm. 
Inonandra Gandolleana, IFioh*. 



I Ieonandra laneeolata, Wight. 

I Picbopsis elliptic*, Be»t?t. 

I Mimnsops Roxburgh-iana, Fiff/ii. 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



57 



Djospyrc 



i proriens, Bah. 
montana, Eoisb, 
Erab^yoptBris, Peru. 
ovalifolia, Wight. 
Ebenum, Kasni-g. 



Diospyroa sylvatica, Uaxb. 
,, melanoxyloiij Eoxb. 

„ Candolleaua, Wight. 
„ nilagirica, Be&&. 

„ paniculafca, Valz. 



OHAP. I, 

Appendix!. 



Rymplocos spioata, Roxb. 

„ mierophylla, Wight. 

,, Grjirdneriatm, Wight 

„ fnliosa, Wtght, 



Symplocos pulcltra, Wight. 
,, obtusa, Tf'dll. 

„ ppntlula, Wtght. 



Jasminum Sarabac, Ait. 

„ Rottteriamim, Wall. 
„ cordifoliam, Wall. 
„ rigidurci, Zmkr. 
„ tricbotomtmi, Eeyne. 

' „ bxevilobum, A.DC. 

j, flexile, Tahl. 

„ calopbyllum, Wail, 

„ hnarile, Linn. 

_ Linoeiera intermedia, Wight* 



Oiea glandulifera, Wo/?. 

„ polygama, Wight. 
Liguefcrum robnatam, Bl. 

Walkeri, Bene. 

Roxburgbii, Clarice. 

ueilg'lieiTease, Wight. 

Peirottefcii, A.BQ. 

Decaienei, Clarke. 
Myxnpynim Hmilacifolmm, Bl. 



APOCyNACEffi. 



Chttocarpus atro-vMdie, Bl, 
Oarissa Carandas, L. 

,, paucinervia, A.BC. 
Bauwolfia serpentina, Benth. 

„ densiflora, Benth. 

Plumsria. acutifolia, Poiret. 
Alstonia. acholaris, Brown. 

„ venenatua, Brown. 



JXolarrhena antiiiyaeufceiueaj Wall. 
Tabernie montana dichofcoma, Ho'sh, 
Wrightia tinctoria., Br. 

„ tomentosa, Soem §■ Sch. 
Beaumontia Jerdoniana, Wight. 
Ohonemorpha macro phy list, Q-.Bon, 
Anodendrou paiiicnlatum, A.DC. 
Tchnocai'pns fruteeceas, Bi. 



Tlemtdosmus indiens, Br. 
Braohylepis nervosa, W. §• A. 
Secamone emetioa, Br. 
Oaloiropia gigantea, Br. 
Daemia exteiisa, Br. 
Holosterrcma Slieedei, Wall. 
Oynanobum aiatum, W- $ A. 

„ pauciftorum, Br. 

„ Callialata, Earn. 

Saroostemma Brunoniaimro , W. § 
0-ynmema eylrestre, Br. 

„ iiirsutum, W. § A . 

„ mouianum, EooTc.f. 

„ elegans, W. # A, 



Tylophora fasoioaiata, Hani. 
„ nxaerantha, Sool.f. 

„ Iphiaia, Dene. 

„ paneifiora, W. $ A. 

,, tenuis, 8Z. 

„ raollisBima, Wight. 

„ asthraatioa, W, $ A . 

Dregea volubiHa, Benth. 
Hoya paucifiora, Wight 
„ Wightii, Hooli. f. 
„ ovalifolia, W- # A. 
„ pendnla, Wight. 
Braobystelma niaeulatnrn, Hook. /. 
Ceropegia pusiila, Wight. 



58 



THE NILCJXEIS, 



OHAP. I. 

AppssniX I. Oerope^ia eloa-a-ns, Wall. 
s , tuborosa, Razib. 

„ ciliati), Wight. 

,, Decaisiicana, Wiqht. 



Mitreola oldenlapdioides, Well. 
Rutl^Ioiii asitifciea, £<fi<». 
Fagraia. oliovo f.a, IKaU. 
Stiryohiio'g onniamnmi folia, Tim- 



AS0LBPIAT1E5 



— cont. 



Oaralluma atteaaata, Wight. 
Boaoot'OBia umbellata, W. § A . 
diffusa, Wight. 



LOO^NIAC'EJM. 

Strychnos mix-voniica, L, 
Grertnera Kaonigii, VP^/if. 
GnrflneriaoTntn, ir«t?. 



Esacam Peirot.tetit, Qrisel. 
j. bioolor, Ro£(i. 

Wightiannm, il-»n. 
,, pedanoulatnm, I . 
„ wessila, X. 
'Enieostomn littorals, Et. 
Cansoora diffusa, Br. 

„ seseililiora, fioem §■ Se/i. 



Gansoora deeussata, JEioewi. $ 5e/i. 

„ perfoliata, Lam'k, 
Gentifina quadrifaria, Til. 
Plenrogyue 3 minor, Ecnifc. 
Swertia oorymboBa, Wight. 

,. fcriehofcoma, Wail. 
Ealema Perrottetii, GViflefr. 



Cordia Mysa, £■■ 

obliqua, TRIM. vai\ Walliohii, 
,, monoiea, Soxb. 
„ Rofhii, Bcemf Sch. 
Ehrofcia Iectjs, JSosb. 

„ var. aspera- 
, twalifolia-, Fi%M, 



SUab&ia lycioidee, M«r*. 
Tonrnefortia Heyaea-na, S-'a^. 
„ reticosa, F'ijfcif. 

IMobodeama indieum, Br. 
Oynoglossum fnroatma, Wall. 

,, deniieulafcum , A.'DO. 



OHNTOI.VOLACBJ!. 



Esioybe p&niculafca, So*3>. 
RWea liypoerateritormis, Gfcw 
ArgysaJa tiiiEefolia, SFigJtt. 

,, Hpecioea, Sweei. 

,) popnlifolia, Oftois. 

' pomaoea, Ohois. 

„ LBseKenatilfcii, Ghoit 

,j nellygnei-y a J OAots. 

j, hirsuta, Am, 

jt oymosa, Swet 

„ oimeata, Xer. 
Lotfcsoraia aggregate, Son*. 

, eeteosa, Soro. 

Ipomrca ho&eracea, /aey. 

„ digitata, £. 



Ipomasa Wighiii, Chois, 

„ pes-tigridie, L. 

„ eriocarpa, Br. 

„ chryneides, Ker. 

,, obeciira, ITer. 

,, sepiariaj Koen. 

, , Belabamdoe, Roeni $ Sen 

JS campaaittlata, L. 

„ Turpethnm, Br. 

„ vifiilolia, Sweet. 

„ piiosa, Sweet. 
Convolvulu.Fi flaras, Willd. 
Evolvnlns alsinoides, X>. 
Brewcria oordataj .BE. 
Cusouta renexa, Boxk 



Solauwm verbascifoliam, I,. 

„ bigeininai-tim, Jffees, 

,, Iteve, P'ttnaZ. 

„ deniionlatum, BI. 

„ gigtintenm, Tacq. 

tt f«rox,.if. 



Solannia Wightii, Mes. 
„ torvum, Sis, 

„ indioBm, i. 

Phyaalis peruviana, L. 

Witbania aomnif em, Dun. 

Datura faatuosaj L. 



1'HYSIUAI, DESCRIPTION. 



SO ROE' If VZiAMAClS M 



Vurbasouoi virgatam, With 
Masms suronloBUs, Bon. 
Limnophiia hirsuta, Betitlt. 

„ hjrporioifolia, Benth. 

HerpesUs Monnierja, H.B # K, 
Popafinum junceiirn. J7«w. 
Artanema sassamoides, Benth. 
Torenia aaiatica, L. 

„ vagans, Hoxb. 

„ birfelia, Boob. f. 
Yaadeliia erustacea, Benth. 



tllysantlies hyssopitiides, Benth, 
Bonnaya veronioasEolia, Sprengl. 
Veronica Anagallis, L. 
Buehnera hispida, flam. 
Striga lute a, Lour. 
Caatrantherfi procnmljeus, Benth. 
Sopubia delphinifoha, G* Bon. 

,, briiidaj Ham. 
PediouJaria Perrofcfcurii, Benth. 
,, seylaniea, Bewth. 



JiSgenetia, pedunculate, Wall. 
OhristisonJa subaoaulis, &ardn. 



UtricftJaria fiexuosa, Vahl. 
„ exolota, Br. 

„ afficis, Wig hi. 

,, fltei'iilea, £. 



jSiSChyna'ttthus oeylanioEtj Gardn, 
DicEymcjcarpns Eottleriaaa, Wall. 
„ tomentoaa, Wight. 

Klugia Hotoniaua, A J)C, 



QaOBAirCHACEJE. 

I Chrisfcisoniabiciolor, Qardiu 

] ,, neBghsmca, Gardn. 

LBNTIBtriARlE^i. 

fjtricularia reticulata, Smith. 
,, binda, .&. 

„ Walliolriaua, Wight. 

„ orbiculafca, pfoii. 

(jESBEHACEjE. 

i Jerdoaia mdica, Wight. 

j Epitbema carnoscra. irientft, 

I aeylanioa. 



CHAP. I. 

Api-hkmx I. 



Oroxylum indioajn 3 Feni. 
DoKohandrone Rhoedii, iSeew. 

j, urispa, Seem. 

„ arouata, CTorfee, 



StereospermunJi suavaoluiiB, DG. 

„ xylocarpum, Wight, 

i Khecdii, SO. 



AfiANTHACE^!, 



Thunbergia iragrans, .Ewefc. 

„ tometosa, EPirfl, 

„ Hawtayneana, JFoZi. 

„ inysoreasis, 2'. Anders. 

„ Wightiana, T. Anders. 

Elyfcraria orenata, Vahl. 
Jfelsonia campesfcris, Br. 
Ebermaiera glauca, Hfeea. 
Oardanthera balsamiea, Benth. 
Hygrophila Serpyllum, T. Anders, 

,, salioifolia, Neee. 
Rceliia pa,tul&, Jaeij. 
Pbaylopsis j*arvifiora, Willd. 
Dieclalaoantbus roseaa; T. Anders. 

„ moatftnuBj T. Anders. 

II omigi-apbia dura, T. Anders. 

„ elega-as, Wees. var. cronata, 
StenoBipaoiimm coafertam, Nees. 



Steaosipb-onium Kassellianuuo, Ness. 
Strobilaaibes foliosna, T. Anders. 

„ KiuifcaiaactH, T. Anders, 

„ goaaypiaua, IT, Anders. 

„ imspidatus, T. Anders. 

„ coaaaaguineuB, Clarke, 

„ barbatus, Hfees. 

„ boteromaliua, 3?. Anders. 

„ Wighbianus, JSees. 

„ palnoyenais, Clarke. 

„ aeilgherrensis, Betid, 

„ Perrottetiaa^H, JVees. 

,, Zeakariaaas, T. Anders. 

j, oiliafcuSj ^?ec^. 

,s deoarrena, iPees. 

,, oandatKs, T.Anders. 

„ l/risfcis, 3 1 . Anders. 

„ sinoepsj ifcesr 



60 



*HR NTLCtXBXB. 



CHAP. I. 

Appendix I. Sfcrobilanthes, lupuhmis, A>( 



ACA NTHACE.-Ii — C0«J. 



Heyneanus, .Wee.'. 
,, raicranLhua, JKif/'iS. 

,, papillosus, 'J'. Audei/, 

,, I mid as, Wiyht- 

,, bolamputtonsis, BedA. 

„ aspor, Wifiht. 

., sessilifi, Wees. 

,, ,, viu" sossiloidea. 

,, HOKcunis, Nee*. 

,, homoti'OpaSj iffetin. 

„ violacetis, Budd. 

„ rabicmidus, 7'. Anders. 

„ panic ala cub, T. Anders. 

, pal cher rnnas, T. Anders 

„ amabiliSj Claris. 

Blephai'JS bcerhaairiffifolia, Pets. 
'Barleria Priouitis, L. 

„ cuspidafca, Heijne. 
„ involacrata, A'ees, 
, uristata, £. 
,. stiigasa, Willd. 
,. nitida, JKeet.. 
Uroasandra andulast'olia, iJaf?.sb. 
Asysfcasia, coromandelina, Fees . 
„ clielonoideSj J/ees. 
„ criapata, JS&ftfcft. 
Anilrograpbis paniculata, Fees. 
,. alafca, Fetih. 

,, viscosala, JSees. var, 

ojtplica+ia. 



Andi'Ogi aphis Neueiaua, tVzght. 
,. sfceliulata, Cfarfce. 

, Hneata, Fees. 

,, lobidioidefi, Wight. 

,, echioidos, Fee>. 

Tlaplaufchus verlicillaris, Sfees. 

„ fcentaoulafjiis, Fees, var. 

nilghirrensib. 
Gymiiosfcaohyura cauosceus, T. Anders. 
Lepidagathis trinetvie, A r ee.s'. 
,, hyalma, Fees, 

„ fastieulata, Wee,*, 

lloiiotbeoiam ariatatma, T. dwrJets 
Juaticia montana, Wall. 
,, Betonica, X. 
,, nilgherrensis, Wall, 
„ trinervia. Void. 
„ glauca, Bottler. 
„ Wynaadensis, Wall. 
„ glabra, Jfeiw?, 
Bhiaaoanthus comimmis, Nees, 
Dianfckera lepcostaohya, Senth, 
Eeboliam Linneanum, Kwe. 
Eungia sisparessis, T, Anders, 
„ latior, Fees. 
„ vepens, Fees, var. 
,, pamflora, Wees. var. pectinata. 
Periatrophe bicalyerdata, Wees. 
„ undulata, Fees, 

„ montana, Fees. 



Lantana indioa, Boatfo, 

Staohytarpheta indioa, T«M. 

Gallicarpa lanata, £. 

Teotojia graadis, Linn, J. 

Premna Fillosa, Claris. 
,, purpuraseena, 27i»j, 
„ tomentosa, Willd. 
,, herbacea, Roxb. 

Gmelina arborea, L. 



Gmelma asiatica, f.. 
Yitex Negando, L. 

„ aHieeima, L.J. 

„ lencoxylon, J/. /. 
Clerodendron serratam, Sprang. 

„ jnfortnnatum, (Jserto. 

Sympliorema poly andr did, WtgM. 
Spbenodesma paiiiculata-j Clarice. 



Geituuin caiium, S'mjis. 
„ gratisaimam, L. 
„ sanctnm, L. 
Pleotranfchas rxvalarfs, Wight. 
Wightii, Bmih. 
„ nilghiricas, Senth. 

„ nepettefoliuaj Bmth, 

„ menbnoides, Benth. 

3, colcoides, £e«i/j. 



OolenE barbatuB, Beyitk. 

„ malabaricus, Sewifc. 
AnisoehiluB oaruosus, TTaW, 

„ dyaopbylloides, Benth, 

„ siLfEratieoBtls, Wight. 

JPogostemon Gardnari, Sooft. /. 

„ Patchouli, Pelletier. 

,, paludoaus, So«i^i. 

„ Wighiii, Bmtli. 

„ mollis, Be»*7i, 



PHYSiOAL DBSOBlPTlOM. 



61 



L abiaijj— cont. 



Pogosteraou rotundatus, Smth. 

„ atropurpureus, Benth. 

„ rapcoiosiM, Benth, 

Dysophylla eraciata, Benth. 
Jlicromevia bifiora, JJenih. 
Galamintba Tmibrosa, Benth, 
Scutellaria violacea, Heyne. 
,, rivnlaris, WaXl. 

Bninelia vulgaris, L. 
Anisomeles ovafca, Br. 

„ malabarica, Br, 
Leonurns sibircuB,!., 
Lencaa urfcicsei'oliaj Br. 
., lanata, Benth. 

procnmbeiis, Besf. 
„ marrnbioides, Deaf. 
„ angalaris, Bent}/, 



Leuoas ptibescens, Benth 

„ sufirrufcicosa, Benth. 

„ vosmariinfolia, Benth 

,, hehantberaif olid . Deaf. 

„ leoncesefolia, X>esf, 

„ eriostonja, Booh.j. 
■ „ iamiifolia, Desf. 

,, hirfca, Spt&uj. 

„ eiliafca, Benth. 

„ Cepbalotes, Spr, 

„ zeylanioa, Br. 
Leonofcis nepetsefolia, Br. 
Gompbostemma strobilmum, Wall, rar. 

Tenoriam tomentosuiu, Segue 
„ Wightii, Soak. f. 



f'UAP. L 

AfPENIMXl. 



PkANTAQINM. 
Planfcago major, X. 



BcerbaaTia repena, Z. 



Celoeia argentea, L. 

„ pnlebella, Moq, 
Banalia tbyrsifiora, M'oj. . 
Allmania nodiflora, Br, 
Digera arvenaia, Forsk. 
Afliarantns paiiioalaliiB', £. 
„ caudatus, £. 
„ gaugetiouB, L. 



Obenopoctium ambrosioideB, L, 



SfYCTAUISBijffi. 

j Pieouia aeuleafca, i. 



Amabantacbue. 



Cyatbula prosfcrafca, Bl. 
JElrua j&vanioa, Jitse. 

„ lanafca, Jtts^. 

„ Monsonia, Mart. 
Achyrantbos aspera, L. 

„ bidentata, J32. 

AUornanfcbora seaailis, Br. 



Cl-IBNOFOltlACEJE, 

) Atriplex 

FoLYSONACEJE, 



Polygonm 



i glabrutn, iriZM. 
minus, Hufe. 
barbatum, L. 
alatam, Sam. 
sphceroespkalam, 



Podosfcemon dichofcomos, U-ar&n, 



■ Polygonum cbinense, L, 

t , efcrigostini, Br. 

„ peduncnlare, Wall. 
J Unimex nepaleneie, Spreng. 
JVall. j 

FOBOSBEMOHACEJE, 

Podosteinon olivaceim, Qwedm. 



var. Wiglitii. 



Braganiia WallidbiJ, B*\ 



Abistolochiace^;. 

j AmfcolocM* mdititt, X.' 



62 



TftE NILGXRia. 



CHA.P. I. PtPERACK-E 

iPSBNDixl, Piper galebum, Gas, -DC. f Pipe 

Erzchoataoliyon , Oas,X)V. j „ 

Betle, X. | 

braoiiyetachyum, JPiiM. 
Schmidbii, Eook.f- 
nigram, £. 
attenuatum, ffm» 



Hymenophyllmu, iW»<(. 
„ arifyropbyllum, jS/iff. 
„ Wightii, Jlfig, 
,, subpelfcatnm, Willd. 
Pepei'omia Wigkbiana-, Sftg. 
,, dljidignlensia, Miq, 

,, reflexa, A. Dieter, 



Myristioa laurii'ohaj Uoah.,L$ T. 
„ Farqahawa-na, TFaii. 



C H TjOKAXTH A C M . 

Ohlorarablius braobyetanhynsj El 

SIyeisticeje, 

Mvrisfciea attenuata, Wail, 



I 
Jjapriw^; 



Ci'yptocarya Wightiana, Thw. 
Apollonias Arnoitii, Sees. 
Cnrnasnonvnin zsylanicniu, Erej/w. 
„ snlpharatum, A T eet, 

, Wighfeii, Mmm. 

,, Perrottebii, Meissii. 

MaoMUw macrantha, Hfees. 
Phoebe lanceolata, A'eas. 
„ paaiottlata, i?ees. 
AbjeodapknG Hemiearpifolia, Wees, 



'■ Actmodapbne salicma, M&t-ssn. 
I „ campanulataj Hook f. 

! j, lanata, Meissn. 

j Libs sea aehii era, P era. 

,, ligBsbrina, Jfees. 

„ olepidea, 3fets#». 

,, Wightiana, Wo-U, 

„ Zeylanica, 0. & Fr. Ness, 
'ha filiformia, L. 



P ROTE ACES). 

Holicia nilagirioa, BbcW. 

THYMKL3SACM, 

L/aeiosipixon erioceplialua, -Dens, 

EL^AGNAGiSjS. 

BlseagtraB tatifolia, X, 



Lorantliua intermedins, Wight. 

M aourrnla, £. 

„ oordifolins, JPafi. 

„ tomeixtostts, Heims. 

,, bractpatus, Seynfi. 

„ raonrvTiSj Wall. 

„ longiUorus, JJesrottss. 

„ clasticas, Dssrowss. 

„ neelgherrensis, iff. # j1 

ijANTALieB/B. 



LoBANTKWK.*;. 

Lora-n.fjb.as inemocylifoHuB, W, $ A. 
„ lageniJIernSj Wight. 
,. ioiuceroides, L, 
Yiscum raonoicam, Mash. 
„ orisnfcale, WiUri. 
,, ovbicnlafcam,, Wight. 
„ capifcollafcttio, 5m. 
„ articulattmij Jiwm. 
„ japoniomtn, IP)Vwh.&. 



Saataliim albtrm, £. 



Oayi'is arboroa, Wall. 



EATiANOPKOB-S. 



PHYSICAL BEgCBIPTiON. 



EtlPHOHBIACKJS. 



Euphorbia pycnostegia, Boina. 
,, byperieifolia, L. 
,, pilalifera. £. 
„ Tufuoallij £• 
„ antiqtionrai, L. 
„ trigona, Sow. 

„ helioscopica, L. 
j, Rothiana, Sprang. 

Sarcococca prumfomiis, Lmdl. 
Bridelia refcusa, 8%ir. 
„ monfcana, Wtlld. 
„ stipularis, Bl. 
Oleietaathus ooltinua, Beuth 
„ patulue, MueU. 

Aetephila excelea, Mubll, 
Agyneia bacoiformis, A. Juax. 
FhyllantlraB Emblica, X. 

„ poIypKylluSj WMd. 

„ Lawii, Qrah. 

Eheedii, Wight. 
„ simples, Retz. var, G 

neriana, 
„ Leseliezzanltii, MueU. 

„ fimbriates, MueU. 

„ Wigbirianns, MueU. 

„ indioiis, MueU. 

Gloobiciion fagifolitim, Mij. 
„ arborenm, Wight. 

„ neilgherrense, Wight. 

„ malabflricum, Sedd, 

„ velntinum, Wight. 

Slueggea niicrooarpa, Bl. 

„ leueopyrus, Willd. 
Brcynia patens, Benih. 

}1 rbanmoidee, MueU. 

SaorOpns qaadrangularis, MueU, 

Putranjiva Koxburg-lm, Wall. 

Hemicyolia sepiaria, W.& A. 

„ vpniista, Thw. 

i, elata, Be&d. 

„ Wigbtii, Hook./, 

Oyclostenioninaerophylhis, Ui. 



Bieehofia javanica, BZ, 
Aporosa Lindleyana, 5aiIJ. 
Dapb-niphyllum glaueeaeeiiB, Bl. 
Antideamu, Ghaeeeiabilla, Gssrtn. 

„ cHandrum, Roth. 

Bacoaarea courtallenBis, MueU. 
Jatoopba Wightiana, MueU. 
Cretan malabaricus, Betid. 

„ Kloi-zsohiamis, Wight. 
Givofeia rottleriformis, Griff. 
OstodeB zeylamca, MueU. 
Blackia unibellata, Bmll. 
,, reflexa, Bsnth. 
„ oalyoina, Benth. 
Dimorphocalyx Lawianus, Hook. /. 
Agrostistachya indica, Hals. 

„ longifolia, Benth. 

Olaoxylon mdioam, Hassle 

„ Jlerourialis, Thw. 
Acalyplia paniculata, Itfig. 
,, alnif olia, Klein 
,, indica, L. 
Trewia midiflora, L. 
Mallotns barbatas, MueU. 

,, albuSj Muell.-v&r. Ocoidenta.lis. 
„ mimcatus, Bedd. 
It philippmensis, Muell. 
OleidioH ja'vaniemn, Bl. 
Macaranga inciica, Wight 

„ Roxbnrgliii, Wight. 

Homonoia riparia, Xoiw. 
,, ratuaa, MueU. 
(Selenium laticeolatum, WiHd. 
Baliospermmn axillare, BL 
Tragia involucr&ta, Z. 

,, bicolor, Mi$. 
Daleohampia yelutina, Wight. 
Sapium insigni?, B&ath. 
Hxco?onria creiiulala, Wight. 
,, robtista, Baok.f. 

Sebaatiania CbaniESlea, MueU. 



Holoptelea irifeegrifolia, Planch. 
Celiis teferandra, Uoseb. 
„ Wigb-fcii, Planch. 
Trema orierttaliSj Bl. 
Gfiroitniera retionlata, Thw. 
PhyHocblamye spiaosa, Bwea-u. 
Streblus aspor, Lour. 
Recospermuoi epiaosiatn, Tread. 
Dorstejiia indicttj Wall, 
Fiou< Dalhoiisise, Miq, 



Ficus 'banghaleiiisi8 f X. 

„ booien-fcoaa, $fi%b. 

„ retusa, L. 

„ nervosa, Both. 

„ religioaa, L. 

„ Tsiola, BoaB. 

„ infeotoria, Jlwb. 

,, inaci'ocarpa, WigK 

„ guttata, Kurs, 

„ glomerata, JJo*6, 



TH3! NXLGIRIS. 



CHAP. I. 
Appendix I. 



TTrticac-bui! — coni. 



Antiaris tojcioaria, Ltiscken, 
AvlocarpiiB hirsute, Lamb, 

„ mfcegrifolia, Linn. f. 

„ Lakoocba, Rosib. 

Urfcica parvlflora, Soxi. 
JTleurya interrupts., Gfattd. 
Laporfcea terminalfs, Wight. 

,, orenulata, Qand. 
Girardinia heterophylla. Dene. 
Pilea Witjhtii, Wedd. 

j, triuervin, Wight. 
Lecantbua Wightii, Wedd. 
Pellicmia Heyneana, Wedd. 
Elatostema sessile, ifors*. 

„ lineolatatn, TFiffftf. 

Wightii, ffoofc. /. 

„ surcnlosam, Wight. 

Prooris laevigata, Eiicmfi. 



! Boyhmcsria malabarioa, TTeG><£. 
I „ platypiiylla, Doit, var. 

varlongisairaa, 
Oliatnabainiuj cuspidata, Wight. 
Poaaobria iudica, (?&wcl. 

„ aarieulafca, Wiqht. 

,, pentandra, Semi. 

„ „ var. ramosissima. 

j, Wightii) Benn. 

„ oaudafca, Benn. 

„ Bennetfciana, Wight. 

„ „ vat. tomeutosa. 

„ „ var. Gardner!. 

„ ., Tar, qnadrialafca. 

Yillebrnnea integrifolxa, G&iid. 
Dsbrsgeasia velatina, tj&ad. 
Drogaetiia diffusa, FfetJd. 



Samcineje. 
Salis tetrasperma, Boa*. 

CEKAT0PKYLM51- 

CeratophyHuia demersum, £. 

G-KETA0K.21. 

Giiefcttm Bcandena, R-owb, 

Ctcadace-k. 
Oycas fliroJnalie, I. 



BtyKa Roxburgh**. K«t&* 



HKHDROCHABIOEiE. 

I Ottelia aiienioides, Pets. 

BURMANNIACEH. 

Snrmaiioia ccrlesfas, Don. 



Oberonia iridifolia, XinAl, 

„ verticillafca, T^SjA*. 

,, BrunonJana, Wight. 

„ Lindleyana, Wight. 

j, Wighfeiana, Iivndl. 
Microsfylis Ehesdii, Wight. 

,, vcrsiaaloc, Wigftt 

,, „ -var, lateola. 

„ crentdate, HidX&-\j, 

Tjip&ris WalkurieESj (JraTiam. 
„ bHoba, Wight, 
„ kmgipsa, Lindl. • „ 



Lip&ris viridiflora, ii«dJ. 

„ resupinata, BAJfe^, 
Denctrobium Maorsei, Ziyffl, 

,, micro bulbon, J i. Bieft. 

„ barbatulum, Zindl. 

,, Jerdomamim, Wight. 

„ macroufcachyum, ££nc& 

,, aqiieuiB, LvnAl. 

BxilbophylTum albidtim, Hooh f. 

>, fuaeo-purpureum, Wight, 

., nilgberrsnse, Wight, 



PHYSICAL BSSOEiratON. 



65 



ORCHIDE.E-— cant. 



Bulbopbyllum tiemuiun;, Wight. 
Cirrhopetalam mlgherrenes, Wight. 
„ Gamblei, Hook, /, 

„ Thomaoni, Hook, /. 

„ acutiSorani, A. Rich, 

Cbrysogloasum maculatnm, Hoojc, f. 
Kri& reticnlata, Senth, 
,, retieoa&j Wight. 
„ DalEelb'i, LmdL 
„ nana, A. Rich. 
„ polysfcaebya, A, Rich 
,, pube*cen«, Wight. 
„ pauoifima,, Wiqht. 
Ipsea Malabaricfi, Boole, f. 
Aoanfcnephippmm birolor, linoV , 
■Tosepbia laneeolata, Wight. 

lattfolia, Wight. 
Coelogyne breviscapa, Lindl. 
„ odoratissima, Lindl. 

„ corrugata, Wight, 

„ glandulosa, Lin<3l. 

Pbolidota imbneata, Lindl. 
Calanthe m&suca, Lindl 

„ veratoifolia.Br. 

Arnndina bambuaifolia. Lindl. 

Enlophia maorostacbya, Lindl. 

u campesta's, Wall. 

„ uuda, Lindl. 

., fiava, Hook,/. 

Oymbiditmi aloifoUnin, S^a-riz. 

„ bioolor, Lindl. 

Geodorsim dilafcafcum, Bs - 
Polysfcaehya Wightii, .Re?'c/t&, /. 
Lnisia taretifolia, &<md, 

„ tenuifolia, i?Z. 
Cottonia macros fcaobya, TFig/itf. 
B.byQcb.OBtylis retusa, B!. 
Sarcoo'MItiB Wightii, l!ook,f. 
brides cylindricum, Lindl. 
,, crispum, lindl, 
„ radieosmn, .4, IWcTt. 
;, Hneare, Uook, /, 
Vanda parviflora. Lindl. 
„ spatbulata, Sprenril. 
„ Kaxburgbn, Br. 
Saccolabinm filiforme, XmdZ. 



Saccolabmm cilagiricum, Rook, f, 

„ Wigbtiarmm, J7ooJ-, /. 

Sarcantbus peinnsnlaris, Bale, 

CMsostoma teneruia, Rook, f. 

Dipln cent rum renurvum, Ztndl. 
„ congesturo, Wight, 

Porloehilus malabairicas, Wight. 

Ooryinbis vera.trif olia, Bl, 

Tropirlia angulosa, Bl, 

AnBeotoohilua regalis, Bl. 

,, elatior, Lindl. 

SpirautheB anstraliBj Lindl. 

Cbeirostylis flabellata, Wight. 

Knnxme sulcata, Lindl. 

Gtoodyera procera, Hook, 

Pogoaia biflora, Wight. 

Eplpogum nutans, Rmcho,f. 

tfabenaria barbata, Wight. 
„ digifcata, Lindl, 

,, rarifioraij A. Rich. 

,, SuHamiEB, Br, 

„ Richardiana, Wight. 

,, oephalotes, Lindl, 

„ polyndon, SooTc, f, 

„ longioornn, Lindl, 

„ platypbylla, Serene/. 

„ plantagiuea, Lindl. 

„ longicalcarafca, A. Rich. 

„ erinifera, Lindl, 

„ Ileyneanaj Lindl. 

„ ovalifolia, Wight, 

,, viridifiora, Br, 

„ orassifolia, A. Rich. 

„ biooj-mita, HooTc, f. 

,, malabarica, EooP,f. 

„ toi'ta, Hoofc, /. 

„ robustior, Book, f, 

., \Yig;htiij Tnmm. 

„ Kaleandra, Ber.th. 

,, jantha, Benth. 

,, Perrotfcetiana, A, Mch. 

Sat.yrium nepalenee, Von. 

„ ,, var. Wigbtiaiia. 

IDisperis zeylanioa, Trimen* 
,, neilgherrenaia, Wight. 



Giobbfi. bulbif era, Raaob. 
Cnrettma. iieilgherj-ensis, Wight. 

„ ttromafcica, Salifh. 
Kiempfsria rotnncfa-, L, 

9 



Hedyehium coronarmm, K<snig. 

„ vemistnin, Wight. 
AmooiTiiD oannsBcarpmn, Smth. 
Zingiber Wigbtiannm, Thw. 



GO 



THB NILG1HI8. 



CHAP. I, 

APFKNIHX T. 



Zingiber Zerumbet, Smith. 
Oosf.i3s speeiosae, Smtt/i. 
Eiettaria Cardamonaura. Matt. 
Alpinia. Allnghas, Rose. 



Scit.iminEj'e— cont, 

Olmojfynes virgata-, Ben-Sft. 
Phryninia oapitaiam, TPt&sJ 
Cann& indica, £. 
Musa rosacea, Jacq. 

HiliMO.lOSACK.'E. 



Peliosanthes neHght'mcnBis. Wight. 
OphiniJOgon intermedins, Don. 



Hypoxia fiuresi, £o«. 
CuiTuhgo Finlayfioiv 



Dioaoorea lomcntosa, Beyne 
„ pontoplirlla, T,. 



Amaryllihe.k 



Curoutigo ovobuoidea, (Jsertn. 
CrintLm defloxum, Kei. 



I Dioseorea opposiif.ifolia, L. 



Stnilax aspera, £. 
„ zeytacioa, / . 
,, macrophylla, Rodh, 
„ "Wigktii, A. JD(7. 

Asparagus Rofcfclen, BaJirer. 

,, l'abricaalis, Baker. 



Ohloropliytum Heyaeaaun), TKaB. 

„ tuberosum, Baker, 

„ laxum, J3*\ 

Soilla indioa, Softer, 
Lilium neilgherrsnae, Wight, 
Jphigenia jndiea, Kwnih. 
Glorioaa supei'ba, £. 
Disporam Lesohenaultiatmm, Von. 



PoNIEDE&'ACM, 

Moaooharia haattsfolia, IVesi. | Monoeharia vaginalis, Pmnl. 



Syria iadioa, L. 



Pallia Bonaiogoiiensis, 3&ii&. 
'Joramelina salioifolia, Roxb. 

,, benghalensds, L, 

„ birBiita, CtaW«>. 

,, glabra, OZar?ce. 

„ paleata, Ha&<?7<;. 

„ Kami, Clarice. 

Anoilema Hneolatum, KwiHk 

„ spiratum, Br. 

„ imtSJfioimm, Br. 

„ smiottro, Lrn&l. 

„ gjigaiiteum, Br, 



«Timou» glauoits, Mhrh, 
„ prisffiatooarpaa, Bs-, 



j Kyrie achcenoidee, Ma.fi. 

OOMMfiSJSAOEjE. 

) Aneilema Koenigii, TF«K. 

,, montaminj, Wight. 
„ ovalifolinm, Hoo&, /. 
Oynnotif) eristata, BcTmltes, f. 
,, taberosa, ScTiitltes, /. 
„ Wigbtii, Clarice. 
„ arachnoidea, Clarke, 
„ piloaa, Sehnlteif f, 
„ Yillosa, Schultes, f, 
„ fasciculate, Schultes, j. 
\ „ axillaris, Eoem * Sch, 

j FloBeopa soandenw, Zmir. 

j IraKala campfistiWH, DO, 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



67 



Areoa Cataolm, L Culfcivaiwci. 
Pinaiiga Dickaonii, Bl. 
Arenga Wightii, Qri(f. 
Catyota ureas, J/twi. 
Phcenix sylvestris, JSwefc. 



FhtBDix farinifera, Roxl . 

Calamus Sotang, L. 

„ travamoonoiis, He&ct. 
„ Huegelianus, Mart, 
„ Gamble!, Becc, 



Paud&nus f&Bcioulans, Lamk. 



CHAP. I, 



Arisaama tovfcuosuin, Schott. 

„ neglcctum, Schott. 

,. Leaohenaaltii, Schott. 
Wightii, Scfcoii. 
Typboiuarn diyaricafcum, Decwe. 
Ainnrphophallas campanulafcits, iJi 



Aoiorpliopballns <lnbm», if?. 
-ReEnnsatia vivipara, Se/io££. 
Coloeasia Autiquonmi, Scftoit, 
Rfaapnidophora perfiusa, Schott. 
Pothos scandens, £. 
Acotus OalamuSj L, 



Ar.ISBIAC3S.B. 

-iiunophyton obtnisifohmu, Mig. 

Naiadacb*. 

Aponogeton erispum, Thtmh, 

"ERIOCAUIiEvE. 



3'>iocaiilon robastum, S&ud. 
„ molalencnm, JUarj. 
„ Browctiaiiutti, Ms;**. 



Briooftuloa se&angulare Liwrt. 
„ colKaaiH, Hooky f. 



Kyllinga triceps, Boitfe. 

„ cylindrical, UTeea. 

,, uielanosperma, Nees. 

„ brevifolia, Rotth. 

„ monoce phala, Rottb. 
Pycreua capiliaria, Neee. var. nilagiricma. 

„ „ rar. punotiaula-fcus, 

Jti&cellas alopectiroidca, C. B. Olorhe. 
Cypnras diSoraiis, L. 
„ compresBus, iJ. 
„ a-ristatus, Rnttb, 
, } Ma, L. 
„ disians, L.f. 
,, refcimcUis, L. 
„ aubca-pitatus. 0, S. film-Ice. 
,, digitatus, Bosh, 
MaTisctis DregcanuB, Kvmtli. 

u cyperiims, Vahl. 
ifileooharia plsntaginea, Br. 
» capitata, £r. 



FimbriatyKs polytrichoidee, Vahl. 
„ Kingii, 0. B. CllarU. 

„ sub6rabeoulat,a, 0. 3. 

Oiarke. 
„ acboaiioidss, Vahl. 

,, diahotoma, TfflJW. 

dipbylla, Vahl. 
„ argentea, Vahl. 

,. monticola, SUiidl. 

,, qmaquangularis, Kv/nth, 

,, miliaoea, Vahl. 

„ ■nliginosa, Steu&l. 

„ monosfcishya, Hassle. 

,, barbata, Kunih, 

Bulboafcytis bavbata, Bmjne. 
„ capillars, Swath. 

„ puberula, K:\mth. 

Scirpua fiiiitane, £. 
„ erectas, Pair. 
„ subcapitals, Tftio. 
,. sqisftn'oana, L. 



68 



THE NILGIBIS, 



GRAV.l. r '^' m 

Avvumix I. Fuirena pubesaens, !£«»(& . 
"" ,, sjloiiaerata, ham, 

,, umbellata, Rottb. 
Lipocurpha sphacflata, Kun4.ii. 
Sclevia lithosperma, Sw. 
,, eorymboea, Jioorb. 
„ taaeellata, JTiHd. 
Gar ex nabigemt, D. Dovt. 

,, mmioafca, L.var. foliosa. 

,, longipes, 2)dj(. var. diasiclfioru 

,, hrurmea, Thimh, 



Carex IcmgicruviH, A'ees 
,, phaoofca, Sprenql 
„ rllieina, Sees. 
„ merc&vensifl, Hochst. 

LiadleyanEi, A 7 eea. 
„ Jlyosurua, A r ei»«. 
„ Walkeri, AtnoH 
„ maeulivfca, Soot*. 

vicmalis, .Booit. 



brevicnln. 



i. Br, 



ligulafca, iVee*. 



"Paapaltim sci'obicalatam, L. 
,. oompaotium, T&olh, 
,, saagai.aale, Laaik. 
,, ,, var. oiliare. 

var. Gi-ifltthii. 
„ longidornm, JEefe. 
„ pedicellate, Trm. 
„ PeiTohtefcii, #oofr, /. 
rsaclme Ktinthiana. W, S" 4. 
„ iiusfcrajie, IV. 
j, dispar, Tr tit. 
„ Walked, JP. <?• 4. 
„ Gardueri, lienth. 
Panioum Crus — gaili, X. 
„ prosfcratnra, X/cemJe. 

„ villosum, La mis. 

„ janaaicunij Pair. 

„ seti^ernas, Rets. 

,, indicuai, I>. 

„ montetTHiiB, i?«ab. 

„ plioatum, Lamlc. 

„ trigomiat, -Seta. 

u piltpas, JSeeg £ ,1m. 

„ patens, L. 

„ loTigipee, WigM. 

„ uBcinafctua, fbad&i, 

OpUsmentts undulatifolias, Beaztv. 
„ oompositus, Beauv. 

,, ' Biirmanmi, Beaav. 
Arundinella. gefcosa, Tri». 
„ Hetzii, SoehU, 

,, fillosa, Am # Steed, 

„ fnsoata, JSeea. 

„ Isptoebloa, Souit, /. 

„ Laweoni, Hbeife, /. 

Setaria glauoa, Buativ, 

„ intermedia, Boem $• 8ch. 
Fennxsetam Alopecuros, Sieud. 
Otyzs, satiiva, h. 
Petolas latif oli&, Ait. 



G-BaMINEJE. 
! Dijner 



pnsilla, Tfi.ii>. 
,, omlthopoda, Trm. 
Imperaba arandmacoa, Gyriii. 
Pollinia ariioalata, Ttin. 
,, argentpfi, Trin. 
„ pbssothm, Bach 
,, ciliata, 3Vt»„ 
Sacboltarimi ftpontancinro, L. 
Xsohaomani fU'iatatam, &. 
„ pilosnm, Utak. 

„ semisagitbatiuiia. lio*&, 

„ oouimntatum, Hack. 

„ motJoaiB, -&. 

., oiliare, BeSa. 

,, hivfcnm, Kfflsft. 

PoRonatiheram orimtnm, JPriw. 
Apoetipis pallida, IToo&, /. 
Arfchrason lanoGoJatns, Muchst. 
„ eiliavia, Beam. 
„ mlcrophyllus, Hochft. 

^plnda varia, Back. 
Kottboollia exaltata, £./V 

, ( perforata, &o#&. 

Manisnris grannla»ia, X. /. 
Aadropogoa loagipes, .Hocfc. 
„ perfcasus, Willd. 

., FonlksBiJ, Hook.f. 

„ niicranfchaa, JCw«tft. 

,j ' Schmidii, ITooftj /. 
„ iialepeiiBsa, Pro*. 

„ aoioalabus, Iffii*. 

„ Wig-bUartus, 8iend. 

,, ZBylamoiis, iv'eea. 

,, monticola, S&foaltea. 

„ Haokelii, Uook, /. 

,, carioosas, i- 

,. atimilatus, Wurak. 

„ centorfiiis, -£. 

„ oliganfhus. Eochst <fc S*««t. 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



69 



GltAMISM — COIlt, 



Atidropogon SchoenanfchuB, L 

„ KardaH, L. 

„ liYiduB, 'i'kw. 

Anthiefcii'm imberbis Belt. 

„ eiliafca, Xitin.f. 

,, tremula, A T ee.-. 

„ oymbaria, lioxb, 

Ariatida A ilBeenscioniB, L. 
Ai'ietida Hysfcrix, £. /. 
Gamotia Sohmidii, ffoo/t. /. 

,, strip ha, Brongn. 

„ arnndinacea, Htiok,f. 

„ courtalleiieis, T7we 
Sporobolus diander, JEtea/wi;. 

., piliferus, Kimth. 

Agrostis alba, L, 

„ canina, £. 
Calamagrostis pilosula, Hook f. 

,, Soliimdii, Hook, f, 

Zenksriit. elegaus, Trin. 
Ocelaohne pulc'hella, Br. 
Mieroohloa aetacea, Br. 
■Entoropogon melicoides, iVew. 
Tripogoii capillatus, Jaub $" Spach. 

„ bromotdes, Moth, 
Oynodoii Daetylon, Pers. 
OhJoris Tirgata, Bur. 



1 Oh.Ion.s barbata, Sic. 

„ polystaehya, Boafb. 

EJeusint? iudicsi Qxrtv, 

,, aegypfdaca, Besf. 
Dsuebra arabiea, Jacg 1 
Lepfcochloa unifiora, Hochsl, 
Arnado Douax. X. 
Eragroacis teuella, Eoem # Sc't. 
aniabihs, TF3" A 
„ ciegaiitula, 3£emq>J. 

,, elongata, ,Tacq, 

,, majoi", 'Bochsl. 

Eragroatis Willdonoviaua, JSTgea. 
„ fcemiifoHa, JTocTisi, 

,. bifariaj Wighi # Sfewd. 

Brim media, £. 

,. maxima, L. 

Poa annua, L. 
Brotm,s asper, Murray, 
Oropetium Tbomaeum, Trim. 
Arundinaria Wightiana, Neen. 
Barabtusa ariradinaeeie, WUH. 
Osytenantherft Tbawaitesii, Mvmvo. 
Dendrooalamus sftriefcus, Wees. 
Teinostaohyuin Wiglitii, Bedri 
Oclilandra BJieedii, Benth. 



CHAP. X. 

Appendix X. 



Lyuopodium Hamilfcami, Spr. 
„ serratuni, Thuiib* 

„ aefcacsaiu, Hamilt, 



Selaginella rnpcetris, Spring, 
„ vaginata, Spring. 

„ afcrovirklis, Spring. 

„ Uaccsda, Spring. 



CRYPTOGAMS. 
Ly«opodiace*i. 

, Lycopodim 



Psilofcnm triquetnim, 



l Fhlegniana, L. 
cennmm, L. 
Wighfciaauin, Wall. 



HEUAGINBLtACiEjiD. 



bryopfcerifij Bafter, 
inequalifolia Sjji-inr;. 
oauleacenB, ftp-ring, 
Petmtda, %nKi;- 



Oyathea spimUosa, TfaW. 

AkophUa latebroaa, Hoofr. 

„ glabra, Wk. 

Hymeuophylltun oxaertuiii, Wcli. 

„ polyaatkoB, Sw. 

,, javanictna, Sjm*. 

Tnobomanea exigaum, BeAA, 

„ nailgherrenee, Be&&, 



Gleiohoma iiueariB, Burm. 
Alsopbila orimta, &k. 



TviahQ names paar-sulum, PoiV. 
: ,, proliferoia, Bl. 

,, bipimotatuw, Pair. 

; „ pysxdiferUBJ, L. 



70 



THE EXiiQiais. 



OffAP. L 

ApmtMx X. Hamate pedafca, Sm. 

~~~ titttiooBtegia immersa, Wall. 

, f palchra, Son. 

DavaUia bullatsi, fVaZt 



Mierolepia wlaiiypylla, Hon. 

„ sfcrigosa, Sw. 

j, Mrta, Ka.%lf. 

Stenoloma chiaeiiBis, 8w. 



Lmdaaya eultrata, <Sw. 
Sohiaolcroia loliata, Tow. 



Adiantiam caadatum, Jv. 

,, capilluH- veneris, If. 

,, iEthiojiicum, L. 

,, hispidnlaai, Sw. 

CiiBilauthnB mysorensis, Wall. 
„ tenuifolia, Sio. 

„ farnmosa, #a»-Z/. 

„ 'iJttr.DalhouBjis, 

Pellsea eoncolor, Langs $ fflssh. 
„ Boivini, JJfc. 
„ faloata, .Pee. 
Ptosis loagiMiiL, L. 
„ ci'efcica, i/. 



Sohiesolouia ensifolia, Sw. 

„ hoterophylia, Dry* 



Ptcria pellueida, Fresl. 

„ engiformis, Pwrm. 

,, qaadriauriba, BeSz. 

„ „ jjar. argenta. 

., „ var. aspericaiiiia. 

„ pafceus, Rook 

,, longipes, (?. Don. 

„ aquilina, Z. 
Oampteria biaurita, ,L, 

„ Kleiniaaa, Preal, 

Ceratopteris tbalicti'Oides, X, 
Loroaraa Patersom, Spr. 
Blecbimm orieatale, Z. 



Thawaopfceris nidus, L. 

,. var. phyllitidis. 

A-splGuiumeusifortse, Wall, 

, Triohoaianes, t. 

„ normaJe, -Don. 

„ Wigafciaauui, Walt 

„ luuu'latum, Bv>. 

,, JZeakerJaaum, Kse. 

„ anntntu, 810. 

„ crmioaule, Hanec, 

„ falcatmo, hamk. 

„ maoropbyllum, Sir. 

., oandafcam, J5*ors*. 

„ formosam, WtUA. 

unilateral^, Lamb- 

,, heterocarptun, IFwIiL 

,, laciniatum, Don. 

„ Eurcatum, Thwib. 



Aspleniuia niiidnin, Stu. 

„ i'ontanum, Berfth. < 



„ varians, Hfe. $" 6?»-et>. 

„ tanaifoliuni) Don. 

Afchyriura Hohenaokenaauin, lOte, 

„ maerocarpuw, Bl. 

„ nigripes, Melt. 

„ selenopteris, fiww. 

.Diplamum sylvatiemn, Presl. 

„ japonionm, jTAwwfi. 

„ polypoidioidea, Mutt. 

„ aspecum. El. 

„ laiifolraai, Sow. 

,j umbroaum, J. $m. 

„ vur. ausfcrale. 

Aiiisogoaium eecnleiituni, Pres?. 
Aotiniopi.eriK dichototaa, Forsh, 



Polystioanja auricalatam, £. 

,, aouleafeumj Stc% 

„ „ vw, angatare. 

Cyrt-omiaai faleataia, Sw. uor, oasyoti* 
danra, TP«B. 
Ampkliuai polymoi'pham, Wall. 



Aspidmm decarrens, Presl, 
„ cicaBai'inin, Su\ 

Laatr®a aristata, S r «-'. 
„ ooniifoliaj IFaZJ. 
„ bivtipes, ~Bl, 
is graoilescena, S^» 



PHYSICAL DESCESMION. 



71 



Iiaatrsea oaleavata, Hk. 

„ var. falciloba, if/c. 
oohthodes, Km. 
tyloses, JKise. 
thelypfceris, 2>esw. 
syrmatica WilM, 
Filisraaaa Z.war.pateutissraia. 



„ var, coehleata. 

sparsa, Don. 
crenata, JPorsk. 
disseeta, Forst. 
scabroea, iCse. 
ferrEginea, £e<2(2. 



Phegopterie distant), Don. 

„ ornata, Wall. 

„ punctata., Thanh. 

Polypodmm paraaitietua, itfeti. 

„ subfaJcatum, Bl. 

Niphobolua adnascene, Sin. 

„ fissas, Bi, 

Dryaaria c 



Leptogi'amme Tolta, Sehl. 
Gymnogramma leptopbyUa, Desv. 
Loxogramms lanceol&ta, Sw. 
„ invohrta, Da»i. 

Menhdiwm triphylltm, Sip. 



Blaphoglossnni, conforms, Sw. 

„ latifolinm, Sw. 

„ atigmatolepis, Fee. 

,, viacositm, Sw. 

Stenochlffina pahisfci'e, L. 
Polybotrya appendiculnta, Willd. 



Lastrsea BoKyana, JVilld. 

„ fcenerioanlia, Wail. 
Nephrodiom Otaria, Rze, 

„ anitims, L. 

,, ptei-oideB, Bete, 

„ eKtensum, ~Bl. 

„ oacnllatura, Si 

„ arbnsciila, Vesv. 

,, permigerum, £1. 

„ molle, Pesv. 

„ tormie&tum, Presl. 

Nephrolepie eordifolia, L. 

„ exaliafca, h. 

Oleandi'a nmscefolia, JCsse. 



OKAP. I. 
Appendix I, 



Pieopelfcis linearis, Thy/rib. 
,, lanoealata, t. 

„ merabranadea, Don. 
„ punctata, L. 
„ hasfcafca, TTtuwb. 
„ nigreKcens, Bi. 

leiorhiaa, JFatt. 



Antrophyutrt refcicalatum, Kaulf. 

„ planfcaginenm, Kaulj. 

Yittaria elougafca, £10. 

„ lineata, Sw. 
Drymoglossura piloselloidee, Prasi. 
Hemionitis arifolia, Bwm. 



Polybotiya appendioulata wr. asplenii. 

folia. 
Gtymnopteria laiiceolafca, Ml. 

„ o&iiiaris, G&v. 

,, contaminans, Wall, 



Osmimda regalia, £. 



Anemia iomoisfcosa, Sic 
Lygodiam saiarophylloia, H.Br. 



Lygodiam fSexmosntn, A 9tn, 



Angiopterfs owcisa, Soften. | Harattia ffcaxiaea, S«i, 

JtTNGERMANKlACE^~(SCALi: MOSSES). 



PlagiocMla diobotoma, JSeea, 
Lopboeolea murioata, Jtfees. 
Gctfcfsnhea altera, Men. 

„ g^cesoeus, .Wees. 



Matloiheea Perrofctstii, Mow*. 
„ Hilgiriensie, Mont. 

., ligalifera, Taylor. 

„ aoutifolia, Zehm. %■ L3.bg, 



72 



THB HILtUILIS. 



CHAP. I, 



JtJK&BBMANBTIAOB^}— (SOALB MOSSBS}— c«ri. 



Appendix Ij Lejpmiia imnatissuBa, Jfttraori. 
" ,, cucnllata, Nset., 

„ Xilgiriaua, Guttsohe. 

Prullanui fjlomorata. X>> $' M»<7. 
„ WalHcbiana, JJhfl-ett. 

ao«tiloba s mitten. 
„ mombata, .Wees. 



htet'taia cnspata, iVee.s, 
Dumorticra hirauta, -Pfres. 
Ifarcbantia uitida, L. 
Fiwbtiitvia lepfcophy'Ha, Mcmt. 
j{ici.'ia. fiuitans, Lvtm. 
SeniHnera dicrana, JVtyi. 
Gymaomifcrinni lutpscens. Mitt. 



KquiaeUnn dtdnle, RopI. 



HqvisBIACHM. 

| BJqtiiaetnm, flp. 

Mabsieeaceje, 
Marsflea quaclrif olia, L. 



BBrYAOE^ 

Tribe I.- 
PleurMium denfcicnlatum, Mitt. 
Leptotnelmm phaaeoides, Mitt. 

„ plicatuia, 0. Mtiller. 

„ Sciiimdii, 0. Miiller. 

Trematoticm Scbmidii, 0. Miiller. 
„ panoifolme, C. MUller. 

CyKontoditiiB arasntuni, {F. $' 24iii, 
Pfecilophyllum tenuvwa, AftM, 
Taylor!, Sfi«. 
, T niters, Mitt. 

,, amaano-virena, MW. 

Oampylopus recurves, Mitt, 
,, Gottgliii, Mitt. 



■(URN MOSSES), 
.—Dr-eanaceje. 

Carapylopus Nilgmeosis, Witt. 

., albescens, 0. MMler- 

,. dunsas , £TfcW. 

„ latraarvo, -KiS*. 

flageffiferss, G. MUUer. 

,. invqhtfttts, 0, atelier. 

t , caitdatws, 0. SfaEHtr, 

,., erioetoi'nm, Mitt. 

„ tricolor, 0. MUller, 

,, erythrugiaaphaloii, 0. Mffiler, 

,, SehmictU, 0. Miiller. 

„ nodiftorus, 0. Miiller. 

,, nlfcidn% Jfiifc 

DidymodoB stenocarpus, Jt£*# 



Tbibe XI. — Grimmie^;. 
Gi-immja ovafca, Weh. and Mahr, j &3yphomifcr£nm (ByaohystGloiira) tarfina, 

s , Nilgivieneis, 0. MtfZJer. 



G. M&ller. 

-LECCOBfcYS.33. 

I lieucobryum NHgirienais. 
| „ Bowringii, ItfifrS. 



Trim III,- 
Octoblepharum albidum, He&w. 
Iieiicabrynmi Ja-vsnse, Mitt. 

„ WigMii, Wit. I 

TRIBT3 IT.— SYRBHOpOOOKTBat, 

Oalymperes sp. 

Teibe Y.— ToanrasiB . 

Weisda {Gymnostoma) iswolufca, JJooft. | Tortula augasfcata, $Jitt. 

Torfcnla orfchodorsfca, JWSHer. „ (Syairiobia) Schmidii, 0. Mailer, 

„ Bteaaphylla, Jf*#i, I Anceotanglam Schmidii, 0. Mielle-r. 

Teibe VI.— Obthqtrichb.#:. 
Zygotjon acafcifolius, 6\ M&lUr. I Hacromffcrium Sobmidii, 0. Miiller. 

oyUudrioa-rpue. C. Muller. I ,, MtfEllerianma, JIK#. 



u tetragonostomiiSs .BrffW't. 
Ulota Sclimldii, Mi*. 
OrthotrioTiurun ; sp. (No. 4<oS Ihrh Bed.) 
Macrotai+riuin Perrofetetii, G. Muller. 



snloatniH, Srid. 
uncinatma, 0. afSiiSer. 
fascioulare, 3fy#, 
Nilgirienais, C flf^^Iej*. 



aquarmlosum, C Miiller. I Scblotheimia GreTilKana, 3Jt**. 



PHYSICAL OBBCaiPTlON. 



7S 



Tbibk VII.— 2VNAKIE.3S, 



liitoHthodon Huseaims, Mitt 
„ Peirottetii, Mitt. 

,, physoomitHoidos, Miiller 

„ diversinems, JKiwWer, 



Enfcostbodoa submarginafcus, MUUer. 
i'unnria eoauivene, Mailer- 
„ hygrometriea, Dili. 



CHAP. X, 



TeIBB Till,™ SPI.ACHKB*. 

Xayloria subglabrata, Mitt. 

TbIB£, IX.~~BABTfiAMIEX. 

Bai-tramia (Fbilonotie) Roylei, Jftt*. i Barti , aniia(J'hiIouot.is)maGvocarpB 1 2f^^er 
„ „ pseadofontana., \ ,, „ aubpollacida, Mitt, 

MUU&r, ] , ( (Breufcelia} Indies, #t#. 

„ „ foloata, 3fif*. ' „ „ dicranacea, Matter, 

Tbibe X. — Beveje. 



Bryuoi gigantettm, Bao&. 

„ Wightii, Mitt. 

„ argentemn, £i««. 

„ ramosom, Hee7t. 

„ Schraidii, 0. Mitller. 

„ ITarveyaimm, 0. Mailer. 

„ flaecidisefcnia, 0. JSfwJJer. 

„ MoHtagiieannm, £7. M&ller, 

„ rngosum, 0. JHwite**, 

u porphyrionenroa, 0. Multer. 

„ alpirram, £. 

„ lamprosteguin, 0, Mailer, 

„ (Dicranobry um) WeiasiEDj Mitt, 



Bryum (Braebyaieniarn) yelutmaca, G. 

MUUer, 

„ ( „ ) olar&riteforoio, 

„ ( „ ) Nepalense, Bwle, 

„ ieptostomoidea, G. Mliller. 

„ apalodlofcyoides, 0. MuUer, 

„ Zollinger], j?u%. 

„ Riedianumj Mitt. 
Milium rosfcrafcnm, Sshr. 

„ rhyncopborum, Book. 
Bbizogonium apiuifoi'ine, Brash. 
Anomoekm planat-aa ? Sf*«, 



Tribe XL— Htpoptertgieai. 

Hypopfceryg-ium wnetlum, 0. Midler. j Hypoptervgism stmthiopteris, Brid. 

Tribe XII.— Hhacopithss. 

Shaooy.ihtm Scbmidii, G. Mutter. 

Teibk XIII.~-Hookesib.c, 



Lepidopilum OoLauamandiaauna, Mont, j 

Disfciohopfayllam (Mniadelplms) Moa- 

tagnei, C. Mliller. \ 



Distiobophyllum (Mni&dalph&g) suooa* 

lentum, Mitt, 
Hookeria. (Oalllostella) flobeltitta, Mitt. 



Tribe XIV-— Ebpobie^e. 
AulaoopiliiTfl tumiththmi, 2^w. a»$ JST*i*. | Erpodlum n : sp. 



HetJIwifjia Inctioa, G, Mullet, 
Orypbcsn. (Bratmia) Indica, Mitt. 
„ (Dend^Qpogoc) feri'uginea s 

Mitt. 
Phyllogonium elegans, Roth and Wit$„ 
Pterobryuin in-roliitmti, T, tm& Mitt. 
„ CeylanicximjT^M?. eftriS2ftM, 

|0 



Pteroferyisai fosHndum, JK*#. 
Cyrfcopas frondesun, Milt. 
Heteurium f asoeecenSj Mitt, 

,» bJ&ndom, affii. 

„ aqnarrostiKJ, Mitt. 

„ aoribKudam, X>, and I 

,, flaxipeB, Mitt, 



T4 



TKK 2VILGLIBII. 



HAP, I. 

?ENDix I, Meteorium Fonlkesianum, Mitt 
»~~— ' „ reelinfttum, Mitt 



Tribe X^.—^oKmsM—csnt, 



1 Metoorium Sokmidii, 0. MSlter. 
„ filamsntosnm, Mitt. 

Mspidum, Mitt. I » cuspidifernra, JKft. 

eiiro-nitens, Mitt. I Necliera Moufcagneana, 0, MUller, 

convolTenB, JAW. , » Gonghiana, Mi«. 

pnuctutafcum, 0. MWWfr. i .. fleqnalifolia, 0. M8Hw. 
tfEEKEBM:. 
t Neeliera 



Xeoketa asreuaaa, Mitt. 
Sohmidii, MiU. 
„ parpula, Mitt. 
Porotriolnira liguleefoUnm, Sittt. ' 

TniBE XVI.— Sematophvt.le^, 



tip. 
„ frusinoaum, Mitt. 
Homalia Targioiuana, Mitt, 



Tains XVII.- 

Siereodon (TnaioaaJia) albescens, Mitt. 

, „ Ivoreanus, Mitt, 

aablramilia, 0. MUller. 
„ leptovhyaohoicies, JlfiW. 



-Stbseojwkteje. 
Stereodon (Symphyodon) Parrociietn, 

Entodon policatns, G. MUlkr. 

, t (Lepfcohymenmm) juliformis, 
Mitt. 



Fohronia setsunda, Mottl, 

„ Gongbii, MiU. 

SehmidH, 0. MUller. 
Eypnuai ctiflcrimiaatiim, Mom?. 

„ Wighfcii, Mitt. 

„ Bonplandi, Jfi'tt, 

„ plumomira, Mitt. 

,, lychnitis, G. Mallei: 

„ procambesiB, JUiii. 

„ huniilliraum, Mi#. 

„ BuoHanani, ffook, 
RhegxoatodoB. orthostegiue, 3Mo»*. 
Traohypua oriBpatulus, Mitt, 

JPiJisidens aaomalus, Mont. 

Schmim, O.MMler. 



Tribe XYIII.— Hypnejs, 

( Traohypua bicolor, Schw. 
„ atratna, Mitt, 

„ Bnchanani.C. iWlfer. 

„ plioEsfoMtss, G. MUller, 

„ brevii'amsus, G. Miillsr. 

Tlmiduioi oymbifolium, Dozy and M. 
„ glaucinum. Mitt, 

„ blepkarophyllg,, G. MUller. 

„ pristocalya, 0. Mdller. 

„ tamariscella, 0. MUller. 

PleuropaB Nilagirensis, Mitt. 
Leskea oonsangniaea, Mont 
„ prioaophylla, Mitt. 

XIX— SXITOPHYtLEiE. 

I Fissideas aerratua, G. MUller. 

I •„ OeylonensJH, Dozy and aj . 



Teibk XX.- 
Pogonat-um Neesii, 0. MUller, 
„ micros toraium, Br. 

bb, SniJ. 



-POLYIT RICHER. 

Pogonatnm hesagoimm, Mitt. 
Volyivicham periohEstiafe, Mont. 



Tribe XXI,— BuxsAuansjE. 
Biptyioiam'ap. ! "Diphyscinm sp. 

LIOHEHALKS. 

Tlicvre avo numerous liehena on tbPae hills, but fchey ha*s aaver been worked out;, 

ffUKGALBS. 

Fangi are numerous, bub little is knows about fchem, 



PHYSICAL SE8CB.IPTI0N, 



75 



APPENDIX II. 



CHAP. I. 
Appendix II. 



Macacns silenus. 
Semnopithecns pnamus, 



QKBm PRIMATES. 

Family Bimiidje. 

Lion~tailed Monhep, 
Madras Zangw. 
Nilgiri Langur. 



Felis tigiris. 
, , pasdus. 



j, eliaua. 



Para&oxurus niger, 

„ jerdoni. 
Herpestos smithi, 

„ fuscus. 

„ yJEtieollis, 



Cards aureus. 
Ovon dukhunenBis. 



Mustela fiavigula. 
Iiutra leptoayx. 



Melurstis arsinuB. 



OKDBB OABNIVORA. 

Family Felid.*;. 

Zeopard or Panther. 
Leonard- Cat. 
lungh- G&L 

Family Viyes.m-bm. 
Indian ]?ahi~Qiwt» 
Brown Pahn- Civet. 



Wilgiri Brown Mungoo&s. 
Stripe-Keeked Mimgooie. 

Family Canidje, 

Jackal. 

Indian wild Bog . 

Family Mcsthlims. 

Indian Martm. 
Olawhss Otter, 

3TAMI£iV USSIDJS. 

8Zot-h Bear or Indian Bear, 



Erinaeetts microp'as. 

Oroddiira marina. 
i, perrofcteU. 



OBEEE. INBECTIVOBA. 

Family Esihaoesdje. 
South'In&ian Hedge ho§. 

FASIIIiY goaioiDJB. 

Brown Mmk-Bhrsw, 
Indian Pigmy-Bhrsw* 



76 



THE NILG2SI8. 



©HAP. % 



Hhinoloplius peters!. 
Hipposideras bicolor. 

Nycfcioejus kixhli. 



OBBEB, OHIROPTBBA. 

FAMILY RHiNQiOPBIDS. 

Beieris Horseshoe Bat, 
Bioohured leaf-nosed Bai. 
Family Vsspeetiliokidjf,. 
Common yellow Bat. 

OKBEE BOD3OTU. 

Family Sciubim, 
Large hroim Flying- Squirrel. 
fiiBuieii- Small Travancore Mying- Squirrel. 



Fteromys oral. 
Soiuropterus 
pillus, 

Bciurus indicua. Large Indian Squirrel, 

( Varieties. Seiitrus JSlphimiionii and Seiitrus Malabar icm). 
Scirmis maontrus. Ghmhd Indian Squirrel. 

„ palmarnsi. Palm Squirrel or common striped Squirrel. 

„ tnstriatus. Jungle Striped Squirrel. 

„ aublineatus. Dusky Striped Squirrel. 
■Family Mvmdai. 
Platacantlioiaye lasinrRe. Malabar Spiny Mouse. 
Tandelenria oleracea. long-tailed Tree~Mou$e. 
Mus ratine. Common Indian- Mai. 

„ blaniordi, White-tailed Bai. 

„ muscnlus. Common Mouse Mouse. 

Nesooia bangalensis. Indian Mole Bat. 
Golun&a ellioti. The Indian Bush-Rat. 

Family Hystkicuhe, 
Hyatrix leuoura. Indian Porcupine. 

T?asiily Lbpobid^, 
Leptis nigrieollis. Blwl-naped Mare, 

ORDER UKGULATA. 
Family "EiiEPHARTHJiE. 
Elephas masiwms. Indian Elephant. 

■Rashly Boysda. 

Bos gaums. &®w°- 

HemitragtiB hyloerms, ISifyiri loild Goat. 
Tetracerus qiiadneoixLis, flour-horned Antelope. 



Oervus unicolor. 



Tragolas mejalraaa. 
Suss emt&tue* 



Family Ceevidje. 
JJ$-^mnm? Deer or 
SamhJiar or Bass Deer. 
Spotted De$r, 

Namely Tsugxtud-s;. 
Indian Chmroiain or Mome-Beer, 

Family Svtom, 
Indian wild Boat, 



PHYSICAL DESCBSPTION. 



77 



APPENDIX III. 
Birds. 



Appendix 
HI. 



OBDBB PASSEBBS. 
Pamilt Ooevid.e. 



Coitus macrorb.ynoh.Bfl. 

Bendrocitta rufa. 



Paras atriceps. 
Macblolopnus baplonotiis. 



Jungle Crow. 
Indian Tree-pie. 
Southern Tree-pie. 
Indian Qrey Tit. 
Southern Yellow Tit. 



irASULY OBATFKOPODIBiE. 



Q-amilax delesserti. 
Troolialopternm oaohinnanR. 

v jerdoni. 

Argya malcolmi. 

}s subrni'a. 
Orateropns oanoruB. 

„ striatals. 

Pomatorhinus norsfieldii. 
pyetorbis sinensis. 
Alcippe phseoeepnala. 
Khopocichla atriceps, 
Myiophoneus horsfielcli. 
LarTiTora bnmnea. 
BroobyptePTi rufiventris. 
Zosfcerops palpebroea. 
iBgitbisa tipbia. 
Cbloropsis malabarica. 

,, jerdoni. 
Erena paella. 



Molpasfcea beemoirboaa. 
Otooompsa fuscieaudata. 
lole icteriea, 
Pyononotua gularis. 
Mioropus phwocephaius. 
Kelaarfcia ponieillata. 



Wynaad Laughing-Thrush. 
Nilgiri Laughing-Thrush. 
Banasore Laughing-Thrush. 
Large Greg Babbler. 
Large Rufous Babbler. 



Southern Indian . 
Southern Scimitar BaUler. 
Yellow-eyed BallUr. 
Wilgiri Babbler. 
Black-headed Babbler. 
Malabar Whistling-Thrmh, 
Indian Blue Chat. 
Kufous-heUied Short-wing. 
Indian WlhiU-eye, 
Common lora. 
Malabar Qhlorqpm. 
Jerdorfs Chhropm. 
Fairy Blm-Urd. 
Southern Indian Blaeh Bulbid. 
Madras Bed-Rented B-ulbuL 
Southern Red-whiskered Bulbvi. 
Yellow-browed Bulhd. 



&reg-headed Bulbid. 
Yellow-eared BuUul (?) 



Bitta eastaneireiitris. 
„ frontalis. 



Famii/e Sitthmb. 
Chestnut- 



Nuthatch 
Uue JSfutJiateh. 



78 



THE N2LGIEI8. 



OHA?. I. 

APPENDIX 

HI. 



OBPBE FA8SBRES— ewtf. 



Family Picsuhir-k. 



Dicrurus lengicaudatus. 
,, oeerulescejifj. 



)tia asnea. 
Diseeimiras paradiseus. 



Indian Ashy Drang o. 
WMte-hUied- Drongo. 
B-rom&d Brotigo, 
Larger Backet-tailed Drongo. 



f Asnt\- Sylvius: 



Aei'oceplialus dumetomm . 


B$ytK*8 Meed- Warbler, 


Oitbotomas sutorius. 


Indian Tailor-bird 


Fianklinia gracilis. 


franklin's Wren- Warbler. 


Schoanicola platyura. 


Broad-tailed Grass- Warbki . 


O&eatorms locmsfcelloidep. 


Bristled Gfrass- Warlhr. 


Hypolais rama. 


dyke's Tree- Warbler. 


AcautKopneaste lngubiis. 


Ball-Green Willow-Warbler. 


}?rinia socialis. 


Ashy Wren-Warbler. 


,, sylvatioa. 


Jungle Wren- Warbler, 


,, ixiOTnata. 


Indian Wrm- Warbler. 


, ; jerdoni. 


Southern Wren- Warbler. 


Fa wri.Y Lawiid^. 


Lanius vitfeitug 


Bay-backed Shrike, 


., erythronotue. 


Mufous-baclced Shrike. 


Hemijrafi picatus. 


Black-lacked Pied Shrtke. 


Xeplirodornis syivicola. 


Malabar wood-Shrike. 


Pericrocotus speolosus. 


Indian scarlet Minwef. 


„ flamtaeus. 


Orange Miniv&t. 


„ brevirostris. 


Short-billed Minivei. 


„ erytltropygiuK. 


White-bellied MiniveL 


OampophagB. Bytei. 


Black-headed Cuokoo- Shrike. 


Famili 


: OfiiouD,*;, 


Oriokis kundoo. 


Indian Oriole. 


„ melanocsplialus. 


Indian Bhchkmdsd Oriole. 


Family 


ECLABEHIJMm 


Bulabes religiosa. 


Southern (hackle. 


Family Stumih^. 


Pastor roseus. 


Bm-ooloured Starling. 


Stasalia blytMi. 


Blyth's Myna* 


Aeridofc&eres tiistis. 


Cbmyim Mynu* 


i&thiGpsaT fnso-us. 


Jungle Mpia,, 



PHYSICAL DBSCBIFi'ION. 



7D 



oedbb e 


'ASSERES-cqjw. 


HUAT, I. 
Appendix 


Family 


M0SCIOAPID/G. 


III. 


SipKia parva. 


European Bed-breasted Flycatcher. 


— - 


., albieilla. 


Hasiern Red-breasted MyoateJm. 




Oyornia pallidipon, 


White-bellied Blue Flycatcher. 




Stoparola melaaops. 


Verditer Flycatcher, 




„ albicaudata. 


Mlgiri Blue Flycatcher. 




Alseonax raficauetne. 


Rufous-tailed Flyeatehsr. 




Ochxomela nigrirafa. 


Black-and- Orange Flycatcher. 




Culioieapa ceylonensie. 


&rey~headed Flycatcher, 




Terpsiphone paradiai. 


Indian Paradise Flycatcher. 




Hypotbymis azurea. 


Indian Bla.ck-na.ped Myeateher. 




Ttbipidura pefltoraliR. 


White-Dotted Fantail Ftyeafaher. 




Family Tuhdims. 




Pratincola atrata. 


Southern Pied Bush- Chat. 




,, maiara. 


Indian Bush- Chat. 




Buticilla Tufiventiis. 


Indian Redstart. 




Copsyclms eaularis. 


Magpie-Robin. 




Cittooincla raacrura. 


Shame. 




Menila siniillima. 


Nilgiri Blackbird. 




„ fiigripilexis. 


Block-Capped Blackbird. 




GeoeicWa war&i. 


lied &rotmd-Thrush, 




Petrophila cinclorhynolia. 


Blue-headed Rock-Thrush. 




„ cyan us, 


Western Blue Rock-Thrush 




Oreocincla nilgirieneiB. 


Bilffiri Thrush. 





Famify Ploceitjje. 

Uroloncha, striata. WMte-backed Munia. 

,. pectomlis. Rufous-bellied ffiimia, 

,j punetulata. Spotted Mania. 

Sporsegintbus amandava. Indian Med Munia. 



O&rpo&acus ei'yt&riims. 
Gymnorbis fliivicollis, 
Emberiza luteola. 



OheK&on xu'bioa. 
Pfcyenoprogne xupestris. 
„ eoneolor. 

Hintn&o rustioa. 

„ jaYaniea. 

„ smitbii, 

„ erythropygia, 



Family Fringilmuje. 

Common Mose-MnoJu 
Tellow-dhroated Sparrow. 
Red-keaded Bunting. 

Family Hissndinidje, 
Martin, 



Grog-Martin, ■- 

Dusky Crag-Mark'??. ■ 

Swallow, 

NUgiri Mouse- Swallow. 

Wire-tailed Swallow. 

Syhe's Striated 8waH<np. 



80 



the muauw. 



uhap. i, 

Al'PSNIJIX 

in. 



QKD&R PASSEEES-CTnt, 
Family Motacsliibje. 



Motacilla maderaspatensi 

,, meianope, 
Limoai&romuB indieus. 
Aiifhus maculates. 
,, nilgiriensis. 



Large Pied- Wagtail 
Gray Wagtail. 
Foresi Wagtail. 
Indian Tree-Pipit. 
Ntlgiri Pipit. 
Rufous Book-Pipit. 



Family Aeaudib*. 



Aiauda gnlgula. 
Mirafra affinis. 
Galerita malabarics. 



Indian Sky-Lark. 
Madras Bush- Lark. 
Malabar Crested Lark. 



FAMILY XECTAIUNID.E, 

Amclmeehfclim asiatica. Purple Sun-lird. 

„ minima. Small Sun-hird. 

it zeylomca. Purpk-rumped Sun bird. 

Araclinothsra longiroatxis. Litth Spider-hunter. 



'Dicceum conoolor. 



Family Dicjeidje. 

Wilgiri Mower-pecker. 



OBDEE PICI. 
Family Firm.*:, 
Little £ 



&ecinaa atriolatus. 
5! chlorogasfcer. 

Maeropterirae galaris 
Tiga shore! 

Ohrysocolaptes iestivus, 

„ gutticrist&tus. 

Hsmioercus oanente. 
Tbnpoaax hodgsoni. 
Flcumnus innominatns. 



OKXJEB 2YGOBACTYU. 

FAMII.Y GAPHEOMJM, 

Thereieeryx zeylemcus. Common Indian Gnen Barht. 



■bellied Green Woodpecker, 

South Indian Yeltoi^naped Wood- 
pecker. 
Malabar Rufous Woodpecker, 

ldm-oaek$d Three-toed 
;«•. (?) 

Black-bached Woodpecker. 
TiekeWs Golden-laehed Woodpecker. 
Heart- spotted Woodpfoker. 
Malabar Great Black Woodpecker. 



viiidis. 
Xanthelasma kiematocepliala. 

., malabanca, 



Small Green Barbei. 
Crmson-breastsd Barht or €oppsr~ 

smith. 
Crimson-throated Barlet, 



Ooraeias indiea. 



PHYSIUAL DESCRIPTION. 

OBDKB AJTISODAOTYLT. 
Family Ooeacud.e. 

Indian Roller. 



81 



Melittopliagus swinhoii. 
Nyctiorms afhertoni . 



Alcedo iapidn . 



Bichoceros biuornis . 
Antliracoceros coronatus 



Upnpa epops. 
,, indiea. 



Pawit.t MrHoPinr, 

Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. 
Blue-learded Bee-enter. 

Family Alcedinihx, 

Common Kingfisher. 
White-breasted Kingfisher, 

Funny TisirERoi'in i:. 

Great ILornoill. 
Malabar Pied IlornUU. 

Family Upupidk. 

'European Hoopoe. 
Indian Hoopoe, 

OBDTJR MACnOClTIRKS. 
Family Cyp^liiu-. 



Oypselus melbti. 

„ affinis, 
Chsetura indica. 

„ sylvatica. 
Colloealia fticiphaga. 
Macropteiyx coronaia. 



Alpine Swift. 
Common Indian Swift. 
Brown-m&ked Spz'm-ioil. 
W7iite-rumped Spine-tail. 
Indian fidihfo-nest SwiftleL 
Indian Created Swift. 



Fuiily CAPiiiMui,cn> i:, 



Caprimulgus maliratteusis, 
,. indiexis. 



Si/Ms Ifighijar. (?) 
Jungle Nightjar. 



Family Pudargid.t:. 
Batracliostoimis moniliger, Ceyhwese Froffmeuth. 

OBIiEll TBOGOITES. 
FAMILY TKOQCNIti.-E. 

Malabar Trogon. 
OBDTJR COCCYGES, 

FAMIIY CUCtJLIlXC. 

Quohoo. 



Harpaotes laaoiatuw. 



Oueulua cauorus, 
Hiei'ococcyx eparverioides. 
,. varins. 

XX 



large JSkwIa- Cuahoo. 
CwwMn Hawk- Cwhoo. 



CHAP. I, 

in. 



THE NILGIBIS. 



A.PPBNDIX 

ni. 



ORDEK 0O00YGES— eo**. 

Family Opcumoje— cord, 
Cacomantis passerinus. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo 



Penthoceryx sonnerati. 
ChrjBococeyx inaeolatitR. 
Oocoystes jacobinus. 

f j eoromandiiFf. 
Eudynainis honorata. 
"Rliopodytes vh-idiroatm. 
Taecocua lesclienaulti. 
Oentropns sinensis 



Banded Say Oiwhoo. 

Emerald Oimhoo. (?) 

Pied Crested Quchoo. 

Red-ivingeA Created Cuoho. 

Indian Koeh 

Small Gmn-hilhd Malkoha. (f) 

Sirkeer Cuckoo. 

Common Counxl or Crow-Pheasant. 



ORDfllt PSITTAOL 

F.\MIT-7 PsiTTArlT.T;. 



Palfflornis oyanoceplialm 

„ coliimboides. 

Loriculis YernaKs, 



Western Blossom- headed Paroquet, 
BliiB-wingeil Paroquet. 
Indian loriquef. 



Strix flammea. 
!3 Candida . 



Syrnmm indrani. 
„ ocellatum. 

Ketapa aeylonensis, 
Bubo beogalensis. 
Huhna nepalensis. 
Scops gin. 

Glaucidiom radiativm. 
Niuox sctitulatft. 



OSDEil STEI&TSS. 

Family Stiukitxe. 

Bam- Owl or Sermh- Owl. 
Grass- QioL 

Family Asiouida;. 

Brown Woo3-Owh 
Mottled Wood-Owl, 
Brown Msh~ Owl. 
Book Horned- Owl. 
Ibrest Eagle- Owl 
8eops-Owl. 
Jungh Owlet 
Brown Bawk»Owl. 



ORDER ACCIPITRES. 

Family VtJLTUBiDie. 



Gtyps indicus. 
Neophron ginginiamin. 



Hleraetiie iascialua- 
lefanaetus malayensisf 
Spizaetus cirrfiatuss. 
,, kelaarti. 

xtorais c&esla, 



Indian LongJiilled Vulture. 
Smaller White Scavenger YitMw, 



Family FAxcosmiE. 



BonelWs Plagle. 
Black Eagl&, 
Ousted Hawk-Magh. 
Id$g:$ 6 Saw%*Mt$k, (?) 

CmUd 8erpent-JS&gte, 



PHYfllCAI MKOKIPTrotf. 



OEBE& ACOIPITEBS—co/i;. 



JPamily Falcon mM—eont, 



MUvub goyinda. 
Circus maerurtiB. 

„ CBruginosus. 
Buteo deaertorum. 
Astoir palronbariias. 
Lophospiziaa trivirgatne. 
Accipiter nisus. 

„ vii'gatus. 
Ferais cristatus. 
Faleo peregrinator. 

„ BSTeiUB. 

Erytkropus amurensis. 
Tirmaiioulus alaudarius. 
., cenolms. 



Common Pariah Kite. 
Pale Harrier. 
Marsh Harrier. 
Go-mmon BimartL 
Goshawk (?) 
Crested Goshawk. 
Sparrotv-Ilawk, 
Basra Sparrow- Hawk. 
Crested Howy-Btmard. 
Shdhin Paleon, 
Indian Hohhy. (?) 
Eastern B.ed4egged M'aleon. 
Kestrel. 
Lesser Kestrel. 



OHAP, I. 

AP PBMDIS 
III. 



OBDJBB COLUMBiB. 

FaMILT COLUMBiDiE. 



Osmotreiou aifiiiis. 

„ pompadora. 

Bucula cuprea. 
Ohaloopliaps indiea. 
Alsocomrts elphinBtonii. 
Turtor saratensis. 



Pavo cristatus. 
6atluB somieiati. 
G-alloperdix spadieea 

,, luaulata. 
Ferdiciala asiatica.. 
Microperdhc erytln'orliyneliua . 



Grey-fronted Green Pigeon. 
Pompadour Green Pigeon. (?) 
iferdon's Imperial Pigeon. 
Bronze-winged Dove, 
ffllgiri Wood-Pigemi. 
Spotted Dow, 

ORBEB GALLING. 
Family PnAauKii)^;, 

Common Peafowl. 

Grey Jungk-Mwl. 

Red Spur-JPbwl. 

Painted Spur-FowL 
i Bush- Quail 



Painted Bush-Qttml, 



^colopax rasUeuIa. 
QalLinago nemoricola. 
„ stonura. 



Dupetor flaricollis. 



Fodieipes albipe 



OBDEii LIMICOLiK. 
'Family Ohaeadriid.t;. 

Woodcock, 

Wood- Snipe. 

PintaH-Smpe. 

OKDEE HEEOBOTES. 
Ivamjlte AebbidjS, 

Black Bittern. 

OKDE& PmOFOBKS, 
Family Pouicipbdid.^, 

Indian Liith Grebe or Dahch'ek, 



84 



THE NUiGHHia. 



APPKKMS 
IV. 



APPENDIX IT. 



Beptiles- 

ORDER SQUAMATA, 
HT)B-ORDJail LACEItTlLlA, 
Family Gkckoniim-i 
Gyinnodactylue nebulosus 

Gfonatodes indicus 

„ ivynaadeiisiss 



„ aispareims 
„ Kttoralis 

Hoiaidaetylua maoulalus 
,, triedrus 

„ depressus 

„ lesehenaultii 

Hoplodactylus anainaUensis 



Sispara elopes, near the foot, 

abundant. 
Ootacamimd and Kundahs, very 

oomraou under stones. 
WalagMti and the Oucbterlony 

valley. 
Sispara Ghat. 
Foot of Western slopes. 
Slopes, common. 
Do. 

(?) 
Slopes, common. 
Slopes above Gajalliatti. 



Draco dussunueri 
Sitaua poiitioeriaua 
Salea liorsiieldii 

(Motes versicolor 



„ nemoiicola 
„ opbiomaobus 
„ ellioti 
Clwasia dorsalis 

,, 'blanfordiana 



Varanus bengalenias 



Oabrita lesehenauLtii 

,, jey&omi 
Opbiops jexdonii 



. . "Western slopes. 
. . Eastern slopes and foot. 
. Ootacanmnd and all the plateau, 
very common. 
All the slopes, very common. 
Eastern slopes. (?) 
. . Ooonoor slopes. 
, . All the slopes. 
Sispara slopes. 
. . Abundant on the roelcs in all the 
Ghats. 

CO 

^AMILY VaKANID.-E, 

. . Southern and Western slopes. 
FamjjE.it IiACERTtDX. 

.. About the foot and lower slopes 
on Basiern and Southern side. 

(?) 
(?) 



PHYSICAL DESCIUPTIOSf. 



OKDER LAOBRTILJA.-HJ0IW. 


OHAP. I. 


FAMIIA' 


SCISCID-S. 


Appekdix 
IT. 


Mabuia bibrouii 


Eastern slopes. 




„ carmata 


Slopes, everywhere. 




,, macularia 


Slopes. 




Lygoscnia dussumieri 


3?oot of Siepara Ghat and Western 
slopes. 




„ lateriniaculatum 


Do. 




„ bilineatum 


Ootaeamund, very common under 
stones. 




,, traYancoriomn 


CO 




„ albopunctatum 


All the elopes. 




,, pmictatnm 


Do. 




„ guentheri 


Do. 




Ristella lurkii 


WalagMt and "Western elopes. 





Family Gium-elegs'tim:. 
Oliamajloon ealearatua . . Southern slo 



Typhlops bramimis 
„ a cuius 

Python molar as 
Gfongylophis conk; us 
Eryx jolirai 



SUB-OJ1DER OPHIDIA. 
Familv Typhlohda;. 

, . Common under the stones on the 



, , B are, about the loot on the Western 
slopes. 

Family Boidjj 
. . All the slopes up to 4 S 000 feet, not 

common. 
, . Oommoii under stones in dry forests 

up to 3,000 feet. 
. . Foot of hills, east side 

Family Ueoi'eliiu.ti. 



Ehinophis sanguineus 
Silybura ocellata 

„ beddomii 

„ ellioti 

„ brevis 
Bicotrurus perroteti 

, , guentheri 
Melanophidinm wynaadenee 



The Oueliterloiry valley. 
Common at Walaghdt and in the 

Ouchterlony valley. 
WalagMt." 

Oommon on the slopes, i 
Kalhatti, WalagMt, Sholur, etc. 
Ootacamuud, very common. 
WalagMt. 
Ouohterlony valley, very rare. 



Xylophis pevroteti 
Jjycodon striattw 



FAJU&V CoLt'SBI^E. 

, » Ootaeamund, rmy oomiuou. 
. , Slopes, common. 



S6 THE 


NILGlKIS. 


CHAP, I. ORDER OVBIMA—cont. 


IV. 

™— Lycodon travenrjoriciis 


OLUBBEDiE—- Cmt. 


. Nilgiris up to 6,900 feet. 


„ aulicus 


Common up to 4 } QG0 feot. 


Psoudooyelophis olivaceus 


Onchterlony valley, rare. 


Polyodontophis subpunetatus . 


Southern slopes. 


Ablabes calamaria 


Slopes. 


Oligodon venuetus 


Ootacamund, not rare. 


j j affinis 


. WalagMfc and Onchterlony valley. 


,, brevicauda 


Bo. 


,, ellioti 


. Eastern and Southern elopes. 


„ atibgrisouB 


Bo. 


Zamenis mueosus (rat snake) , 


. Slopes up to 4,000 feet, very 




common. 


,, fasoiolatus 


. Below Kotagiri, rather rare. 


Coluber helena 


Western and Eastern elopes. 


Bendrophis pietus 


Slopes, common. 


Tropidonotua beddomii 


Mudumalai and Western slopes. 


., monticola 


Bo. 


„ stolatus 


Slopes, common. 


„ piscator 


. Lower slopes. 


., plnmbicolor 


Sholur, Kalhatti and slopes. (?) 


Helioops BchistoeuB 


. Muduraalai, very common. 


Dipeas trigonata 


. Slopes, very common. 


„ ceylonensis 


Western slopes, common. 


„ forstonii 


* Slopes, rare. 


Bryophis periroioti 


Graes land of the plateau, very 




common. 


,, niycterlzanss 


Slopes, very common. 


„ pulrerulentas 


Walagh&t, rare. 


Ohrynopelea ornata 


. Slopes, common. 


CallopMa triiaaoulaiais 


. Once met with at the foot oi' 




Sispara Ghat, very rare. 


„ nigresoens 


. Slopes, rare. 


„ bibronii 


* Mudumalai and Western slopes. 


Bungarus csonilGus (Krait) 


. Eastern slopes. 


Naia tripu&ians (Cobra) 


Common low down, rarely coming 




up to 5,000 loot. 


,, bungartts (Hamadryad) 


* Ouehfcerlony valley and Western 




slopes. 



Vipera Utiasellii 
Eohis earinata 
Ancistrodon hypnale 
Trimeresuras strigatus 

,, anamallensiB 



Jt'AMIi.Y VlfEHIDJi:. 

Lower slopes, eastern side. 

Bo, 
Slopes, not common. 
JCundahs, very common. 
Western and Northern slopes, 
common. 



PHYSICAL D1SCBIBTI0N. 



87 





BatraeMa. 


CHAP. I. 


ORDER EGAUDATA. 


Appendix 
IT. 




Family Eanid.^. 


__■*» 


Bana fcesadactyla 


. . Eastern slopes. 




,, cyanophlyetis 


Do. 




, , kiihlii 


. . Walaghat. (?) 




,, verrucosa 


. , Western slopes. 




„ tigrina 


. . Eastern slopes 




,, limnooharjs 


. , Plateau, the common frog in all 
s warn pa. 




,, breviceps 


. . Slopes. 




,, beddomii 


. . Walaghat. 




., diplosticta, 


Do. 




, eurtipes 


. . Walaghat and the Onchterlony 
valley. 




,, temporalis 


. . Plateau and slopes. 




Mierixalus saadcola 


. . Western elopes, on roefes, beds of 
rivers. 




„ opisthorhodue 


. . Western sides, plateau and slopes. 




Hyetibatraehus pygmEeus 


. . Walaghat. 




Bhacophorne malabaricns 


. , Western slopes . 




,» maoulatus 


* . Lo-wer slopes. 




„ pleurostictus 


. . Ootaeamund and all the plateau. 




Ixalus variabilis 


. . Plateau and slopes. 




, , glandulosus 


. . The tinkling frog of Ootaeamund. 





Family Engystostatid.^. 



Melanobatrachua indicus 



Microhyla ornata 
Oallula obecura 



„ triangularis 
Oaeopus systoma 



Bnfo hololins 
„ beddomii 
„ melanoetictus 



This Httle frog, usually only met 
with on the Anaimalais and 
Madura Hills, has been found at 



a and slopes. 



Wslaghdt, etc. 
Plateau, Western s 



Faikara. 

Slopes. 

FAMILY BUffONID^. 



Western elopes. 

Bo. 
Common everywhere 



Icfcthyophis glutinosus 
UrseotyphluB pxyurus 



OSB&B A?ODA. 
Family Cj&cihim& 



Western slopes. 
Bo, 



TUB WILGIBTS. 



CHAP, I. 

Apfehdis 
V. 



APPENDIX V. 



Sand and FffesB.-watei* Molltasca. 

IHOPEBOULATED MSP SHELLS. 



Vitrina auriformis, Bl. 

Helis aealles, P/. 
acnclncta, Sen. 
ampulla, 5m, 
apieata, P£ 
aspirans, Sis. 
Barrackporensis, Pf. 
bidentieula, Ben. 
Instrialis, Pee&. 
cacuiaimfera, Piw. 
castra, Sen. 
eoimluBj Bl. 
crinigera, Ben. 
eyeia, Pwsh. 
eaomphalos, Pfe. 
faltaciosa, Per. 
fastigiata, Huit, 
febriiiSj Bk. 
guerini, Pf. 
Hattoni, Pf. 
Indica, Pf. 
injussa, Bl. 
ICooa&aensis, BL 
iyclinia, Bh 
Maderaspatana, (3 ray. 
mucosa, Bis. 
Hilagirioa, P/. 
Pioieanaj Pf. 
retifera, Pf. 



. Holis: Shiplayi, Pf. 

., sispariea, P/. 

j „ solata, Ben. 

i ,, tertiana, Bl. 

„ thy reus, Ben. 

,, iodarum, J?A 

! ,, Tranquebaxica, Bl, 

,, tricarinata s Bk. 
\ „ ritellina, Pf. 
i Straptaxis Perotteti, Pe^. 
; „ Watscmi, Bk. 

i Pupa (Ermea) bi color, Mutt, 
i Bulim&s marortvus, Hem. 
„ Nilag-meus, P/l 
> s physalis, Pe». 
! „ preetermissus, Bk. 
„ punctatns, ^/?i, 
trutta, SI. 
; Achatina Bensoiuana, P/. 

„ botellas, Pen. 
! „ Oeylanica, Pf. 
i „ Gorroeula, P/. 
,, facula, Pe«. 
, } Jerdoui, Pe«, 
„ hehes, P/. 
1 ,, oreas, Pew. 

I „ pauperonla, #/,?. 

,, Perotteti, P/. 
Shiplayi, P/ 



OPJSBCULATBD LAND SHELLS. 



Biplommatina Nilgirica, 5/. 

Jr niti&ula, Bl. 

Oataulus yecurratus, Pf. 
Jerdonia trochlea, Bm. 
Oraspsdotropis ouspidatus, B#». 
Oyathopoma Ooonoorense, P*. 



Oyatliopoma Deocanenso, Pif. 
„ iiloeinetam, P#». 

„ Hala*baricam s Pfo. 

j, malleatam, Bl. 

, } Wynaarlense, #/. 



PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 



Opisthostama NilgiricutB. » Bl 
Alycrans expatriate, Bl. 
Pterocyelos bilabiatus, Sow. 

„ nanus, Ben. 

v rupestrie, Ben. 

Cyclophorue ammlatus, Tros. 
, cceloconuR, Ben. 



OFWRCULATED LAND SHELLS— cont. 

Oyclophorus deplaimtus, Bf. 
Indicus, Pf. 
iiwolvalus, MuH, 



Terdoni, Ben. 
UilgiricuSj B& 
ravidae, Bm, 
Shiplayi, Pf. 



a hap, i. 

Affekdii 
V. 



FRESH WATER SHELLS. 

Auipullaria globosa, Swain. 
iNeritina Ferotetiana, Reel. 
Palmlina Bengalensis, Lam. 



Byfchinia stenothyroides, Bohr?}. 
Pianorbis exnstus, Desh % 



90 THE NILGIBIS. 

CHAPTER II. 
POLITICAL HISTOBY. 



SUbi.y Hmtoev— XTnder the Oanga lau-'s— The Kadanibas— The Hoyfla-las— 
Their Dannay.ikas--And the kings of i[y sore— Dearth of historical material — 
The antiquitins of tho bills— Cairns and barrows™ Their contents— Their 
huihlera—^'ewj-ams— KiatTaons— Cromlechs— Their bud dera— The best speci- 
mens Historical inferences from those ant ujmlirs. Excici-ui PfiEJOD— 

Affmrs, at the end of the IStli century — The fall of Seringapatam and cession 
of 1 lie district, 1799— Later history of the Wynaail— The Pycliy l'obel— -His 
death m 1803 — The plateau, fiiab TCnropemi vi si tors™ Portuguese priests, 
1002— Br. Buchanan, 1800— Keys and Mtiejralion, 1812— Wliish and Kinders. 
ley, 181.8— John Sullivan, 1810— The first bridlo-paili to tho plateau, 1821— 
Reports regarding its elimato discredited — First mention of Ootaeaimmd, 
1831 — It becomes the capital of the plateau, 1822— Progress up to then — 
Improvements between 1S23 and 1825—Sir Thomas Monro's visit, 1S2G— 
G-ovemraont assistance to Oovacuamnd, 1827 — Progress up to then—Mr, S. 
11. Lushingfcoa becomes Clovovnor — His support of the sanitarium— ¥ia visit 
to tho hills, 1821) —Part of tho plateau transferred to Malabar, 18S0 — Sew 
roads to it— OLhov improvements — Progress up to 1833— The Convalescent 
D6pSt abolished by Sir F. Adam, 1834— Other changes by his Govonrmant — 
Tho plateau re-annexcd to Coiorbators, 1813— Tho Ktsudahs, etc,, added to 
it, 1SG0 — It is placed under a Commissioner, lS'JS — The Ouchterlony Valley 
and the Wynand addwl to it — It becomes a Colloclorfvtc, 1882. 

CHAP, II, fp HB pji|gi r i district may almost Le said to be one oJ! those 
Early happy countries which have no history. Even had it been 

" sufficiently ricli or strategically important to tempt an invader, 

its inhospitable climate, the difficulties of tlie passes up to it anil 
the feverish jungle which liedged it round would have deterred 
any but the boldest. But it never contained any towns worth 
sacking or forts worth capture ; and the only inhabitants were 
poor graziers and cultivators. Consequently the rapacious rulers 
round about almost disregarded it ; and the only parts ol it which 
figure prominently in their chronicles are the passes (like Grajal- 
hatti on the north-east) which enabled them to circumvent it and 
get at their foes ou the other aide without actually crossing it. 

For this and other reasons, the materials for an account of its 
people in the days preceding the British occupation are very 
meagre. In most other parts o£ the Presidency the inscriptions 
on the stone walls of the numerous temples afford valuable class to 
the events ol byegone centuries ; bat on the ISfitgiri plateau the 
shrines are either temporary or entirely modern, while in tlie 
"Wynaad they are seldom more than thatched huts ; and apparently 



POLITICAL HISTDEY, 



91 



BARLT 
HlBTOBT, 



there is not one ancient inscription of any historical value in 
the whole of the district. The neighbouring Mysore territory is 
however less destitute of records ; and the contents of these have 
been set out in. Mr. Ijewis Rice's ~E%>iyrafhia Canmtica and throw a 
dim reflected light on the state of affairs in the Nilgiris in early 
days. 

The oldest inscription which mentions the district belongs in Under Ike 
Mr. Rice's opinion to about 930 A.D. and shows that the Wynaad Gailga kings 
was then part of the territories of the well-known Granga dynastj 
of Mysore. This record relates how on the death of Ereyappa, 
the then king of the (rangas, Ids sons liachamalla and Butuga 
both claimed to succeed to the throne. .Racbamalla was in 
'Bayalnad J f : the land of swamps,' the old name for the Wynaad) l 
at the time, and Bhtuga sent to him and proposed that they should 
settle their differences by dividing the country between them. But 
Rachamalla's envoys curtly replied that they ' did not wish any- 
other than Rachamalla to rule over the kingdom of Bayalnjid. 
Hostilities between the brothers naturally followed ; KachamaHa 
was killed ; and Butuga became undisputed ruler of the Wynaad. 

Between the close of' the tenth century A.D. and the begin.- The 
ning of the twelfth century these Gang-as were ousted from the Kadambas. 
Wynaad by a branch of the J£adambas, the dynasty which at one 
time had its oapital at Banavasi in North Oanara. The Wynaad 
was at that time divided into two portions, the Bira JBayalnad, and 
the Ch&gi Bayalniid (the limits and meaning- of which are not 
clear) and one of the -Mysore inscriptions (alluding' perhaps to the 
treacherous beauty of the country, which attracted the stranger 
and then laid him low with malaria) says ( an adulteress with black 
waving curls, an adulteress with full-moon face, an adulteress with 
endless side-glances, an adulteress with adorned slim figure was 
this storey ed mansion } the double Bayalnad.' Cattle -lilting seems 
to have been very prevalent, and sometimes the fights which it 



92 



THE NILG11US. 



CHAP. II. 

HlBEORY. 



Tboir 
Daara£ya1ms, 



peak to the Lakshini of Victory.' This is the first mention hitherto 
discovered of the names Toda and NHagiri. The Sanskrit forms 
of the latter, Niladri and Nilachala, also occur in other inscriptions 
of about the same date. A grant of 1120 AJD. says that Yishnu- 
vardhaoa ' turned the Nila mountain into a city ' and another of 
1141 states that ' the ruler of Nirngundanacl, by order of j&denad 
and Hiriyanad, laid siege to Kuknlla fort, above the peak of 
Nilagiri fort; burnt the fort, slew the son of Koteya Nayaka (or, 
perhaps, i of the chief of the fort '), and joining fight with the 
enemy's force who opposed him, routed them and, hy his bravery 
in war becoming a hero, went to Heaven.' It is not easy to 
identify these places and no signs of any Xukulla fort which, 
would answer this description survive : hut it is worth mention 
that the natives sometimes oall Bangasvami Peak, on the extreme 
east of the plateau, the Nilgiri Peak; that a village called 
Nirguncli stands seven miles east hy south of Kotagiri; and that 
another named Kukal is four miles north-west of it. It is in 
any case deserving of note that the conquest of the Nilgiri plateau 
was considered to merit special record and that the country 
possessed, even then, inhabitants who were capable of considerable 
resistance. The title c Subduer of the Nilagiri ' (Nilagiri-sadaran) 
seems indeed to have been borne hereditarily for long afterwards 
by the Hoysalas and their successors. Perhaps one reason why 
they gloried in it was that the Nilgiris were holy lulls. The Abbe 
Dubois says that even a sight of their summits was held to be 
sufficient to remove sin. 

In 1310 this Hoysala line was overthrown by the Musalinans 
'of Delhi j and their king fled. Authority over the Nilgiris seems 
then to have descended to Madhava Bannayaka, the son of the 
Hoysala minister Perumala Deva Dannayaka. who took the title 
of * Subduer of the Nilgiris s and ruled from Terakandmbi in the 
present Ghmdlupet taluk, just north of the plateau^ until 1818. 
He was followed by his son, and an inscription of the latter ? s 
time in the Vishnu temple at Dannayakankottai, the deserted " 
village near the junction of the Moyar and Bhavani, calls that 
place Nilagiri -sad&ran-kdttai, or * the fort of the Subduer of the 
Nilgiris. 7 Its present name of Danisiyakank6ttai was doubtless 
given it in honour of this family of Dannayakas. Perhaps this 
village was the 'city* above referred to as having been built 
by Vishnuvardhana. It is now entirely uninhabited and is un- 
approachable from the tangle of prickly-pear which grows all over 
and around it; but tradition among the hill-tribes, as well as 
history, points to it as oae of the places from which, even up to the 



POI/mCAL HISTORY. 



93 



end of the 18th century, tlie hills were ruled ; and even after the CHAP, It, 
British occupied the country it was at one time the head-quarters TCaktjY 
ofataliBildar. Hl !IL"- 

Both the Wynaad and the plateau fe]l, in the early part of the 
sixteenth century, under the rule of the famous Hindu kings of 
Yijayanagar, who had repulsed the Delhi Masalmans and estab- 
lished their capital at Hampe in the present Eellary district. An 
inscription of 1527 records that Krishna Raya Nayaka, 'the 
right hand of Krishna De'va Maharaja ! (the greatest of the 
Vijayauagar line) granted to a certain person ( the village of 
Masanahalli in Bayanad stala, together with its hamlet of Deva- 
rayapura, free of all imposts, with the eight rights of full 
possession, to he enjoyed by himself, his sons, grandsons and 
descendants, as long as sun and .moon endure. 1 This Masanahalli 
is the village at the foot of the Sigur ghat which, is now called 
Mashiig'udi ; and its hamlet De'vardyapura is the Ddv&rayapatna 
from which the early European visitors to the hills named the 
path which led. down to Sigur ' the Devarayapatnam pass.' Round 
about both places (sec p. 851) are numerous rained buildings and 
sculptured cromlechs, and both were clearly of far greater 
importance then than now. It is worthy of note, too, that they 
were considered at that time to be included in the Wynaad. One 
inscription seems indeed to suggest that the former was actually 
the capital of that tract. 

In 1565 the Vijayanagar dynasty was overthrown by the- .And t.lie 
united Mnsalman kings of the Deccan at the memorable battle of ? { in f , 
Taiikota (one of the great landmarks in South Indian history) and 
its rulers, though they continued to maintain a semblance of 
power, became so feeble that their vassals in every direction rose 
against them and declared themselves independent. In 1610 
one of these, Mug Baja "Wodeyar (Udaiyar) of Mysore, drove out 
ofSeringapatam the Yijayanagar general; and two years later 
he was granted that plaeo and the Uuimattur country near it hy 
the then nominal king of Vijayanagar, who was living at Femi- 
konda in the Anantapur district. Thenceforth fclio kings of 
Mysore became rulers of the Wynaad and titular possessors of 
the TSTilgiri hills, and the latter were apparently under the 
immediate rale of dependents of theirs called the Udaiyars or 
Rajas of Ummattur (a village in the present Oliamarajnagar 
taluk) who constantly ftgnrc iu local tradition. 

Of the doings of the Mysore kings in the Wynaad and on the Dearth of 
plateau or of the internal history of the district down to the date J^* 01 ^* 
of the English occupation in 1799 no record or definite tradition 



94 THE NXLOIBIS. 

off ap, IT. now survives. The account (referred to later) by the Jesuit priest 
iiutobt Ferreira or Finicio of his visit to the plateau in 1602 shows that 
— - the Todas and Badagas were already setfclyd there at that time and 
maintained much the same mutual relations as they do to-day. 
The only relics of a possibly earlier occupation by others are, on 
the plateau, the old gold-workings referred to in the last chapter, 
aandry derelict forts, and numerous cairns, barrows and cromlechs ; 
and, in the Wynaad, some raore ancient gold- workings and one or 
two old forts, such as the two near Nellakoitai mentioned on 
p. 370 below. 

"Regarding none of these three classes of relics is there any 
roal history or even any definite tradition ; and who their authors 
can have been is a matter about which, it is possible only to 
conjecture. The gold-workings are often attributed to Tipu 
Sultan's initiative ; but there is no evidence that he had anything 
to do with them and the probabilities and the legends (see for 
oxample p. 366) point to their being much older. Such Badaga 
tradition as exists usually declares (see Chapter XV) that the 
Hulikal Drug , Malaikota and TJdaiya Bay a JKota forts were 
constructed by tho TJmmattur Bajas when tliey held the country 
as dependents of Mysore about the beginning of the sixteenth 
century ; but is entirely silent, regarding the mud fort at Kinna- 
korai which commands a track leading up from the Bhavani valley 
and the Sembanattam fort near Masinigudi. The cairns and 
barrows of the plateau are apparently older than any of these 
strongholds ; while the cromlechs on the other hand seem 
comparatively modern. But the evidence is too scanty to warrant 
positive assertion and the net result of enquiries into these three 
classes of antiquities is of the very slightest value from the strictly 
historical point of view, 
The anil- Setting aside the gold-working's and the ruined forty, which 

tell us the least of the three classesj we may digress for a moment 
to see what evidence the old cairns, barrows, etc. of the plateau 
afford as to the dwellers in that tract either before or after the 
Mysore kings became rulers of it. 

These consist of (a) cairns, which range from carefully con- 
structed circular walls of uncemented stone rising above the 
ground and sometimes called * draw-well cairns,' through rougher 
similar walls backed with earth, down to more, circles of stones 
embedded in the ground ; (B) barrows, which consist of circular 
heaps of earth surrounded by a ditch which is sometimes enclosed 
in one or more dveles of loose single stones ; (c) funeral circles, 
or dsdrams, "built of rough stones ; (d) kistvaens, or bos-shaped 






POLITICAL HISTORY. 



95 



Eablt 
HisToity. 



constructions made of six slabs of stone (in one of which is a round chap, ii, 

aperture about a foot in diameter) sunk clown to the level of the 

ground and sometimes surrounded with a circle ot loose stones or 

an earthen tumulus ; and (<?) cromlechs (or dolmens), which are 

similar constructions but have one side quite open, stand above 

the level of the ground, and are often sculptured with figures of 

men and animals. 

.Except the cromlechs, these monuments originally contained 
ancient relics, such as pottery, weapons, implements, beads, etc., 
and unluckily this fact at once attracted to them the attention of 
the early European visitors to the lulls, who dug into large 
numbers of them without system or care and without troubling to 
record the results. As early as 1826, the Rev. James Hough 
said l that some ol thorn had been opened j Captain Harlcness' 
book on the T6das, published in 1832, 2 gave an account of his 
excavations into others with an illustration of his finds ; and 
Lieutenant Burton, who wrote iu 1847, 3 put ' curio sity-hunting,' 
as he called it, first in his list of the amusements open to a visitor 
to Ootacanmnd. Even as early as that, he said, these antiquities 
had been { so exposed to the pickaxes of indefatigable archaeolo- 
gists that their huge store of curiosities has been almost exhausted. 
Little remains but the fixtures.' Gaptain H. Congreve was the 
first to publish (in 1847 4 ) an illustrated account of the excavations 
he had made (he opened 46 cairns) and the relics he had found ; 
but the classic on the subject is the Primitive Tribes and Monuments 
of the jyilagiris of Mr. J. W. Breeks, the first Commissioner of the 
district, which contains numerous photographs. 5 The cream of 
Mr. Breeks' finds was eventually deposited in the Madras Museum, 
and Mr. Bruce Foote's Catalogue of ike Prehistoric Antiquities there 
(Government Press, 1901) contains further illustrations of some 
of them. 

Mr. Breeks' work was written in compliance with a circular 
issued by the Indian Museum at Calcutta suggesting that re- 
presentative collections should be made, for exhibition at that 
institution, of the contents of the many ancient burial-places in 
Central, Western and Southern India. This was sent by the 
Madras Government of the day to all Collectors, but Mr. Breeks 
appears to have been the only one of them who achieved anything 
o! note in the direction desired. 

1 Letters on ike climate, etc. of the Neilglierries (London, 1829), 83. 

2 Siaiish, Elder and Co., pages 33-5. 

3 Qoa and the BlueMo-itntnina (London, 1851), 313. 
* M, J. L. S., ziy, 77-146. 
s Allan and Go., 1878. Otter papers are the articles of Mr. M. J, Walkonsje? 

3&G.8,, ill the Indian Antiquary, ii, S7S j iV, 161 j and y, 41. 



96 



THB NILSIBZ8. 



AV. U. 
History, 

Cairo s aaii 
barrows. 



Their con- 
tents. 



Of the various classes of monuments above referred toj tlie 
cairns (called by the Badagas ho'kJcaUu, or navel- stones) and bar- 
rows are "by far the most numerous. They always stand on the top 
of some commanding hill and sometimes occur in groups. They 
are scarcest on the Kundahs, where only a few small ones exist in 
the neighbourhood of Avalanche; ami most numerous, and also 
most prolific in relics, in the Todanad. Within the stone enclo- 
itres of the cairns, which range from ten to twenty-eight feet in 
diameter, and in the barrows, which are from twenty to sixty feet 
in extreme width, are generally found large oblong stone slabs 
lying on the ground and usually placed south-west and north-east 
as though by compass. 

These cairns and barrows were clearly burial-places and 
appear to belong to the same period. The things found within 
them included burnt bones and ashes, pottery, iron weapons and 
domestic implements, a few "bronze vessels, one or two bron.se and 
copper weapons, a few gold ornaments, and beads of glass, agate 
and cornelian. 

The commonest find was pottery. It is usually made of coarse 
clay, like the chatti of to-day, but sometimes is finer and finished 
with a polish made from mica. Some ot the forms are unique and 
quite unlike anything found in other parts of South India. The 
real cinerary urns which contained the ashes and bones of the dead 
are shaped like a flattened chatti and rudely ornamented with 
Vandykes, dots and circles. They were usually buried four or five 
feet deep. Nearer the surface were much more striking examples 
of pottery, namely long cylindrical jars, generally empty,, with 
round or conical bases fashioned to rest upon ring-stands or to be 
stuck into soft soil, like the classical amphorae. They have domed 
lids on which are grotesquely and clumsily executed figures of the 
most varied kind, including men and women standing or riding on 
horses, leopards, buff aloes with great curved horns, peacocks, de^r 
with spreading antlers, sheep, elephants, and other animals too 
rudely-fashioned to be identifiable with certainty. Some of the 
buffaloes and sheep have bells round their necks. The men wear 
beards clipped short ; both men. and women have head-dresses, 
some of which resemble the Phrygian cap ; the only clothes they 
wear to protect them from the rigours of the plateau are narrow 
waist -cloths, but they have necklaces, bracelets and other orna- 
ments, and cross-belts in front and behind. Nothing could be 
more unlike the dress of the present dwellers on the hills. 

The weapons (none of the hill people now use any weapons 
at all) include short- handled axes, heads of spears, javelins 
and arrows, swords and daggers ; and the domestic implements 



builders. 



POLITICAL HIOTOBr. 97 

comprise sickles, razors, knives, shears with spiing bandies, CTCA.P. II. 
tweezers, lamps and bells. The few bronze vessels, which are Ea.hl? 
naturally much, better preserved than any of the iron articles, are History. 
so elegant in shape and so delicately ornamented -with, flutings and 
lotus-patterns that they almost resemble Greek or Egyptian art 
and stand quite apart from the other finds. The gold ornaments 
are also prettily designed, and the bet) da are cleanly drilled and 
sometimes engraved with varied patterns filled in with a kind of 
white enamel. Many of these articles again differ entirely from 
anything now in use on the plateau. 

Regarding the age and the authors of these cairns and bar- Their 
rows there has been much ingenious speculation. In many parts 
of the world, a distinct bronze age preceded the iron age, but 
there is as yet no evidence that this was so in Southern India and 
the fact that bronze and iron articles occur- side by side in these 
monuments raises no clear inference as to their date. Ancient 
trees (computed to be 800 or 400 years old and one of which, 
mentioned by Congreve, was 27 feet in circumference) grow out of 
the middle of some of them ; but the nature of the relics does 
not point to a really remote antiquity, and none of the hill-tribes 
claim any right in the monuments or (though this fact can doubt- 
less bo explained away) exhibit any objections to their being 
opened and rifled. There is nothing about the monuments to 
connect them with any of these tribes (unless it be the numerous 
figures nf buffaloes, which resemble those which the To das now 
breed) but on the other hand their contents, as has been seen, 
rather point to their having been the work of people who differed 
altogether from the present inhabitants and have disappeared. 
Captain B. S. Ward, whose survey memoir of 1822 appears to be 
the earliest paper in which the monuments are referred to, and 
who was a most careful enquirer, said that the people told him 
that they 'were built by the Boopalans, predecessors of the 
present race of the Toduwars ' or Tddas. Breeks, on a considera- 
tion of all the evidence, thought it f more satisfactory to assign 
the cairns to the Tddas than to an unknown race ; ' but if the 
pottery found in them was really the work of the ancestors of the 
present T6das these latter must have greatly degenerated in 
(esthetic appreciation, for nowadays their domestic utensils, which 
are mostly made for them by the Kotas, arc of the plainest 
description. Perhaps, however, just as they may have given up 
the use of weapons when they found defence was no longer called 
for, they gave up yearnings after the beautiful when they found 
another caste would fashion sufficiently serviceable, if ugly, 
utensils for them. 
IS 



08 



THE NIXRIRIS. 



CHAP. TT. 

HlSSOttY, 



A a foams. 



A number of cairns aud barrows not referred to either by 
Breeks or Congreve still exist on the hills and some of these have 
apparently neve? yet been excavated. 1 The subject cannot 
therefore be said to have been exhausted ; but as far as it has 
hitherto been worked out it throws no clear light on the history of 
the plateau 

The dmrams^ or stone funeral circles, are in some cases with 
difficulty distinguishable from the ruder cairns and olosely resemble 
the circles within which 3 even to this day, see p. 145, the Tod as 
deposit relics ai- their funerals. "Within these, large deposits of 
charooal and bones, some brass bracelets, and some iron spear- 
heads and chisels were found by Brooks. These last were very 
much, less rusted than those discovered in the cairns and barrows, 
and of rather different shapes. No brass was found in any of the 
cairns, though the To da women of to-day wear brass armlets- 
It seems permissible to suppose that theTdclas may have been the 
authors of this class of monument. Breeks explored but few of 
them, and mentions a group of about thirty on tho hill just east of 
the top of the Signr ghat which he considered should be carefully 
examined. 

The kisfcvaens, which are all much alike, have only been found 
in one locality on the plateau, namely near the ruined Udaiya Baya 
fort already referred to. They do not seem to have any counection 
with this construction, for the Badagas have no tradition regard- 
ing them and give them the unmeaning name of Moridru manai 
or s Mdriars 3 houses.' They generally measure about Ss^ feet by 
3| feet and the circle of stones around them is ordinarily aboat 
18 feet in diameter. They differ but little from the thousands of 
similar erections which are scattered about other parts of the 
Presidency. like the cairns, barrows and dzdrams, they were 
doubtless burial-places. Inside the stone circle of one opened by 
3£r, Breeks was found a broken dagger and some fragments of 
pottery of a thick, highly glazed kind, quite unlike that from the 
cairns. 

In the Moyar valley are hundreds more of them, sometimes 
in groups covering ten or twelve acres, and these are generally 
surrounded with earthen tumuli. 3 

! Many were noticed (luting the local inquiries made for the collection r>f 
material fortius present volume, but it aeoma useless to give particulars of 
these smue hod only is it moat tliiUtsnlt to describe their position accurately 
eaoogli to suable them to bo traco<3 licsreafter, but it is impossible to be aura 
from "their appearance whether they have been alreaciy rifled or not. One or 
two liowever are mentioned in Chapter XV. 

* Mr. William Eraser's paper in MXL.S, for May I860, 



POLITICAL HI8TOBY. 00 

The cromlechs (called mla-kallu, or ' sculptured stones,' by tlie CHAP. II. 
Badagas and Ura-kaUu, or ( hero-stones,' "by the Kuruinbas and ]5abl$ 
Irulas) stand in a class apart, and appear to have no connection T " aY ' 

with any of the other monuments. While the cairns are ecat- Cromlechs, 
tered over the plateau and. generally stand on high, bare ridges, the 
cromlechs all lie on. the lower levels and near the passes leading 
up from the low country. They are apparently not burial-places, 
and the few objects found in them are quite different from the 
contents of the cairns and almost certainly more modern. The 
cromlechs consist, as has been said, of three slabs of stone placed 
on end to form three sides of a square, with a capstone on top. 
The biggest of them, one in Jakkaneri, a hamlet of KfHagiri, is 
just high enough for a man to stand upright in it. The inner 
sides of the back slabs are frequently roughly sculptured, and the 
representations on them furnish material for conjectures as to the 
age and purpose of the monuments and the people who erected 
them. 

The sculptures, of which there are many photographs in 
Breeks' hook, very generally consist of a series of compartments 
or rows, one above the other. In the topmost, beneath representa- 
tions of the sun and moon denoting that the testimony of the 
stone will last for ever, are often a basava (sacred bull of Siva,) 
kneeling before a lingam on its yoni pedestal/ and a male figure ; 
while in the lower ones are standing male and female figures and 
representations of battle or hunting scenes— such as a man, sur- 
rounded by his attendants, riding on a horse and brandishing 
some weapon, or on foot spearing a sambhar, tiger or elephant. 
Both the men and women are nude above the waist, and the 
latter wear big ornaments in their pendant earlobes and their 
hair dressed in a great bunch on one side of their heads. In 
some cases the women are depicted with one hand raised and 
clasping a flower or a round object. 

It will thus be seen that these sculptures closely resemble Their 
those on the vimhds (' hero-stones ') and mahd saji Jeals {/ great builders, 
sati stones ') which are so common in Ooorg, Mysore and the 
western side of the Bellary district, and which are also numerous 
round about Maainigudi. These usually consist, it is true, only of 
a single upright slab, while the cromlechs contain in addition two 
side slabs and a capstone ; but the sculptures on both classes of 
monument are remarkably similar in general design and in the 
curious head-dresses of the women. 1 Colonel Wilks a thought 

1 See I'ergusfeoo'a Rude Stone 3Iotiu.mnn.ta (1872), -L^S. 
z History ofMtjbOre (Madras, l&68),i» 15 note, 



100 



THE KILGTBIS. 



CHAP. EI. 

History. 



The bask 



that the lower compartments were intended to depict the hunting 
expedition or battle in which some hero was slain, the figures of 
women above them to represent his translation to Heaven by 
celestial nymphs and the uppermost compartment to portray the 
regions of bliss themselves, with the hero standing before the 
peculiar emblems of his religion, the Linga'yafc (or, at the least, the 
Saivite) faith. The women with one hand raised are the dead 
hero's wives who committed sati on his pyre, and the objects they 
hold are one of the flowers or limes which they used to distribute 
to the bystanders before they took the- fatal leap into the fire. 

Now the only tribe on the hills who are iSaivites or Lingayats 
(or even Hindus in the strict meaning of the word) and would be 
likely to carve basavas and lingams on their memorials of the 
dead are the Badagas ; and these people to this day claim connec- 
tion, with some of these sculptures. They say, for example, that 
those at Tudur and M&ui* wore made by the ancestors of the 
present villagers of Athikarihatti (p. 316) ; they often pat the 
supposed abodes of their deified ancestors near such cromlechs ; 
and they are repairing and improving one at Acheni. It has been 
urged that the Badagas cannot have erected them because they do 
not understand the art of stone -cutting ; but this art has never 
been common property and has always been the exclusive posses- 
sion of the artisan castes. The Badagas have apparently always 
imported necessaries of life (saoh as their clothes) from the plains 
below them , and there seems to be no reason why they should not 
have brought up stone-masons -when need arose, as indeed they do 
nowadays. They by no means severed their connection with the 
plains 3 and to this day some of them choose their brides from 
their caste-fellows down there. 

Only one of the cromlechs, that at Melur, has any insciiption 
on it and this is too fragmentary and defaced to be clear. Rai 
Bahadur Y. Venkayya, the Government Dpigraphist, says that he 
cannot find in it the Saka. year or the reference to a tiger mentioned 
in Xh\ Pope's translation of it given on p. 1 02 of Breeks* book, 
and thai- apparently its purport Is a statement that the cromlech 
was set up by two Gavnmlans. The characters are quite modern. 
Badagas of position still use the title Gavnnclan, and as far as it 
goes the inscription thus supports the theory that the cromlech 
was put up in historically recent times by Badagas. 

The best examples of these sculptured cromlechs on the 
plateau are those half a mile west of Sbolur (six miles in a 
straight Hue north by west of Qotacaimmd) ; in a shdla about a 
mile south of the JVfeMr already mentioned, which include the 



POLITICAL HIBl'OKT. 101 

best carving- of all ; in the Banagudi shoia of Jakkane'ri, a hamlet Oil A.p, II 
of Kotagiri, near the bridle-path from Kotagiri to St. Oatherino's Early 
falls, which contain, the biggest example known 1 and are called "by ' Ia] ; 0RY ' 
Breeks the ' Doddiiru group; ' at Jakkata (the c Jakata Kambe ' 
of B reeks) about a mile to the south of the last; at Aches!, a 
hamlet of Konakarai three miles south-east of Kotagiri ; at 
Haluru (the s H'laiuru ' of Breoks) a hamlet or Keagarai east of 
Kotagiri ; and at Tiidur, a deserted Badaga village about two 
miles west oE Kulakambai. which arc those referred to "by Breeks 
as ' in Major Sweet's plantation beyond Kafceri.' 

In these last were found a number of iron and bronze armlets, 
fliekleSj rings, two small iron hatchet heads (all less rusted than 
in the cairns) and a rough ckatti ; but as a rule there is nothing 
in the ciomiecbs, whether sculptured or unsculptured, except 
rounded water-worn stones, which the natives call deva-hotta- 
kallU) or 4 god-given stou.es.' Breeks says that the Kn rumbas used 
to put one o! ? these stones in 'a cromlech each time ouo of their 
relations died and Mr. M. J. Walkouse, M.C.S., says a the Irulas 
did so too. 

In. the JVIeDougal estate near the Kulakambaif alls, down a 
very steep path and in a spot overlooking the Bbavani valley, are 
the ruins of a remarkable sculptured example which was described 
and illustrated by Mi', "Walhouse before it was demolished and is 
the only one of its kind on the lulls. It originally consisted of 
five cromlechs (three big ones in the middle and a smaller one at 
each end) standing side by side and facing the same way, but the 
slabs of which it was composed have now been thrown down and 
are covered with jungle. 

Neither Breeks 5 nor Congreve's accounts of the cromlechs are 
exhaustive, there being several excellent sculptured examples 
which are referred to by neither, but they go far enough to show 
that there is little hope that any more definite conclusions will- 
result from farther enquiry. 

tt will be seen from this long digression that, however Historical ia- 
interesting the various antiquities on the plateau may be in them- Frances from 
selves, they throw almost no light on its actual history. lathe t ^ e an aqm " 
Wynaad there are no remains of the kind, and the darkness there 
is even deeper. 

Almost nothing is heard of the'iate of either tract from the 
time that they iell 3 as already related, under the power of the 

1 This is evidently the one referred to on p. 40 of Colonel Koss-King's 
Ahriginal Tribe* afthe JUilgWi HtUs (Longmans, Green, 3870). 
* X-nA'cm 4»&<j«arjf, it, lc7S— is. 



102 



THE NUOIBU. 



CHIP. II. 

English 
Ptsbiob. 

Affairs at the 
end of the 
18th century. 



The fall of 
Sewngapa.- 
'tam an<5 ces- 
sion of the 
distrust , 
1790. 



Later his- 
tory of the 
Wyna&S. 



Mysore "king's in 1012 until, the end of the eighteenth century — 
jast "before the English first became possessed of them. 

The very existence of the East India Company was at that 
time threatened by the kingdom of Mysore, which had meanwhile 
("by steps with which the present account is not concerned) risen 
to great power undur iiaidar AU, a soldier of fortune who had 
usurped its throne in 1760, and his son Tipu Saltan, who 
succeeded on his death in. 1782 The latter appears to have 
levied revenue from the plateau and garrisoned the forts at 
Malaikota and Hulikal -Drug (see the accounts of them in 
Chapter XV) with detachments from the Damiayakaukotfcai 
already mentioned. 

The Mysore Wars so well known in history were waged "by 
the East India Company against Haidar Aii and his son Tipu in 
the endeavour to cripple their power ; and the Third Mysore War 
ended at length in victory, Seringapatam being captured in 1799 
and Tipu killed during the final assault. In the treaty which 
followed (settling the division, between the Company and its 
allies, of Tipu's territories) the Nilgiri plateau, which was 
included in the ' Panaigincotah ; district (revenue 35,000 Kanii- 
raya pagodas) mentioned in the schedule thereto/ was ceded to 
the Company ; hat the Wynaad, by some blunder, was ceded 
under one name to the Company and under another to the young 
king of Mysore whom the British had resolved to re-esta"Mish on 
the throne which had been seined from, his family by Haidar 
Ali. The error was rectified by a supplementary treaty dated 29th 
December 1S03 2 in which the country (the revenue of which was 
put at 10,000 Kantiraya pagodas) was formally handed over to the 
Company, who had in the interim been exercising all rights 'of 
sovereignty within it. 

Stormy years followed in the Wynaad. 3 One of the most im- 
portant families in Malabar, of which the Wynaad then formed part 5 
were the Kottayam or ICotiote Rajas, whose territory included 
the whole of the Wynaad and much of the Kottayam taluk. 
This territory had long been governed jointly by different mem- 
bers of the family, each of them ruling over a particular division. 
The head of the family was Yira Varma, commonly known as the 
Kurumhranad K&ja, but its most celebrated member was Kerala 
-' Varma HXija,, who belonged to its Padinyara Kovilagam or ( west- 
ern branch ' located in the Palassi or c J?ychy ' amsam of the 

1 Sse AHolu'son's Treaties, etc. (1892), vm, 318. 

2 IMot., 474, 

s The account which follows i» abridged fi'oai IJogiui's Malabar, 



POLITICAL HISTORY. IDS 

Kottayain taluk, and who soon became notorious under tlie name CHA.P. II, 
of ' the Pychy rebel. 5 English 

He had already been engaged in disputes with Tipu. In 1787 ~ D " 

that monarch had compelled the head of the Kottayam family to Tlie ^7^7 
hand over to him the Wynaad, which was part of the particular divi- re Je ' 
sion of the Kottayam territory which had "belonged to its ' western 
branch.' Kerala Varma was the leading- member of that "branch; 
declined tamely to submit to this alienation of its property ; and 
from .1787 to 1790 (when the Second Mysore War between the 
Company and Tipu began) kept up a desultory warfare with 
Tipa/s troops. 

On the opening of hostilities in 1790, the Company's Chief 
at Tellicherry promised. Kerala Yarma that if lie would ' enter 
heartily into the war against Tipu Sultan and act rigorously 
against him ' the Company would do everything in their power 
to^render.Hm independent of Tipu. 1 The war ended in 1792 and 
Tipu was compelled to cede certain territory to the Company. 2 
Malabar {including the Wynaad) was held by the Company to be 
comprised, in the country then transferred and was placed under 
the charge of the Government of Bombay. One of the first acts 
of that Government was to restore Kerala Varma ; but he persist- 
ently refused to come to any agreement about the revenue 
settlement of his 'country and moreover got into trouble with the 
authorities in 1795 by impaling certain Mappillas alive. An 
attempt to capture him resulted in his fleeing to the Wynaad, but 
on his begging forgiveness and the Kurumbranad liaja giving a 
security "bond for his good behaviour he was allowed to return. 
He however began intriguing with Tipu's officers and preventing 
the collection of the pepper revenue, and at the end of 1790 a 
proclamation was issued against him and a letter sent to him 
warning him that * not a sepoy shall rest in this province till you 
and alL your adherents are utterly extirpated.' 

Fighting followed in the beginning of 1797 in which Kerala 
Varma had much the best of it, surprising a detachment and 
killing its officer ; cutting up a havildar's guard at Palassi and all 
their women and children"; and compelling some of tlie posts to 
withdraw and others to put themselves in a state of siege. He 
also now obtained support and ammunition from Tipu (who had 
always declared, that the Wynaad had never been ceded to the 
Company and was still his territory) and during jungle-fighting 
in "March 1797 inflicted a loss of about half its numbers on one 

1 Logan's Malabar, iii, 84. 
Aitohison's Treaties, etc., viij, 462. 



104 



English 
Pbsuod. 



detachment of two companies seat against him and killed four 
English officers belonging to another, of which he captured the 
guns, "baggage and ammunition. The (xovernor and the Coin- 
mander-in-Chief of Bombay eventually came down to Malabar 
and troops were pushed up and captured Kerala Varma's head- 
quarters. Negotiations were then opened with him and eventually 
in 1797 he was pardoned and granted a pension of Bs. 8,000 
per annum. 

In 1 798 Lord Mornington declared !jy proclamation that the 
Wynaad had not really been ceded to the Company by the treaty 
of 1792. Iu 1799 however, as has been seen, it was so ceded by 
the treaty of Seringapatarn. and from the 1st June 1800 it was 
placed under the Government of Madras. 

But Kerala Tarma declared that the Wynaad had always 
belonged to his family and that its cession in 1799 was ultra sires; 
and he once more went out on the war-path. The Government 
of India ordered that his presumptuous conduct should be severely 
punished and placed the military control of the district, with 
Canara and Mysore, under Colonel Arthur WeUesley, afterwards 
Duse of Wellington. That officer's hands were full elsewhere 
for some time, and Ke"rala Varma made the most of his opportu- 
nities by attacking the low country of Malabar. At the end of 
1800, howe\ or, Colonel Welleslcy was free to deal with him and 
began regular operations to that end. By May 1801 every post 
both above and below the ghats was held by British troops and 
Kerala Varma was a wanderer in the jungles. It was found 
impossible actually to capture him, however, and meanwhile the 
unwise administration of the first Collector of Malabar, Major 
Maoleod, had thrown the whole district into a ferment and 
enormously increased the number of the malcontents. 

These insurgents quickly became so bold that they even 
threatened the Todanid and the country round Masinigudi, then 
oalled 'the Devarayapatnam hobli.' The Board of Revenue 
reported in June 1803 that the latter had been deserted in 
consequence, and in 1804 Government sanctioned the enter- 
tainment of 100 peons to protect it. In June 1805 Colonel 
Maoleod, the officer commanding a portion of the Madras force 
recently brought int<f,*Malabar, offered rewards for the seizure of 
Kerala Varma and^eleven of his followers and declared all their 
property confiscated. This proclamation was the basis of the 
enquiry which was held in 1884 into the * i'yohy escheats ' in the 
Wynaad and.is referred to on p. 280 "below. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 105 

Meanwhile every effort to capture Kerala Yarma continued CHAP, II, 
to be made "by the authorities and he was at length kilied 3 resisting- English 
to the last, in November 1805. Thus ended the days of a man B f . 0P ' 

who, as the Collector wrote, ' for a series of years has kept this His death is 
province in a state of confusion, and agitated it with the most I80 
intricate and perplexing warfare in which the best of officers? 
and of troops have at various times been engaged to the melancholy 
loss of many valuable lives and the expenditure of as many lakhs 
of rupees,' With bis death ends the political history of the 
Wynaad. 

We may now turn to events on the Nilgin plateau. This, The plateau 5 
though it came into the possession of the Company in 1799, was |f 3fc 
apparently not "visited by any Englishman until 181S3 and certainly visitors, 
contained no European residence until 1819. 

Nearly two centuries before the Company obtained it, two Portuguese 
Portuguese had made flying visits to it from Malabar; but their P nBB *M ec3 - 
impressions were not such as to encourage others to follow their 
example. The record of these visits is contained in two Portuguese 
MSS. in the British Museum which are quoted in part in Breeks 5 
Primitive Tribes mid Monuments and translated in full in Mr. 
W. H. E. Elvers' recent work The T6das. x 

About 1 602 the first Roman Catholic Bishop of the Syrian 
Christians of the Malabar coast despatched a priest and a deacon 
to the NUgiris to search for and bring back into the fold certain 
Christians who were stated to be living on the hills and to have 
( anciently belonged to the Syrian Church of Malabar, but then 
had nothing of Christianity except the bare name/ The account 
brought back by thorn. ' wa« not so sure and complete as was 
desirable/ so soon afterwards a somewhat less hasty expedition, 
led hy the Jesuit priest Jacome Perreira," was at the Bishop's 
request despatched from Calicut. Ferreira's formal report^ written 
at Calicut on his return on the 1st April 1608, stated that he had 
found no tidings of any Christian colony, but contained some 
account of the Badag-as and Todas and showed that he apparently 
came up by the jangle-path which still runs from Manarghatin 
the Malabar district down the upper part o£ the Bhavahi valley, 
to Simdapatti in that valley, and thence up the ravine of the 
Kantian river to Manjakarnbai, two miles south-east of Dovashola 
hill. He and his party returned by a better route, shown them 
by the kindly Badag-as, of which no account is given but which 
, may have 'been the Sispara path. 

1 Maoznillan & Co., 1000, pp. 739 fit. 

s Mr, Eivers gives his name as Jftnwjio ox U&uieio, 

14 



106 THE HU,G)1RZ8. 

CHAP, II. Tlie colony of backsliding Christians being shown to be a 

English myth/ tlie Catholics of Malabar apparently took no further interest 

' in the Nilgiris, and for close on two centuries more these hills 

continued an unknown land. 

Dr. On the 25th October ISi'O, Dr. Francis Buchanan, who had 

180o imat1 ' been deputed by- the authorities to conduct enquiries into the 

extensive territories added to tlie Company'*; possessions by the 

treaty of 1709 already mentioned, find who had arrived at the 

village of Dannayakanlcottai which is referred to above and was 

then tho head- quarters oF the taluk which included the Nilgiris, 

' took a very long and fatiguing walk to the top of the western 

hills in order to see a camhay^, or village inhabited by ErtUgdru' 

(Jralas). Be returned the same day, and as his remarks - regarding 

his walk are confined to a description of the Irulas and the 

splendid view below him. and say nothing of the hills which he 

had scaled, it seems clear that he neither really readied the top of 

them aor had any idea of the beauties which were so short a 

distance ahead of him and on which he had turned his back. 

Mr Q-rigg" 3 suggests that the spot he reached was near Arak6d ; 

below B-angasvaini Peak, on the old track which then led from 

Daniiayakankottai Lo Kotagiri It seems likely enough that he 

followed this, then the only, path and it is quite unlikely that in 

one day he could have climbed any higher than Arakdd. Other 

contemporary papers * show that this .latter was then the first 

village up the hills and distant seven miles from Dannayakankottai. 

At the same time that Buchanan was set to work to write a 

description of the acquisitions of 179'J, Colonel Colin Mackenzie. 

the distinguished oriental scholar who collected the valuable series 

of M8S. which goes by his name, was deputed to survey them. 

He does not seem to have himself ascended the Nilgiris, hut his 

reports refer to an account and a map of them di'awn up by his 

native surveyors. These cannot now be found ; and it is probable 

that even if they could they would be of httlo value, for the 

Collector reported in 1819 that l owing to the extreme inclemency 

of the climate ' the surveyors were frightened, measured not an 

acre, and contented themselves with ' making an estimate of the 

quantity and quality of the land and fixing the old rates of ieerwa 

(assessment) upon it.' 

1 -Rav. F. Mela" The tt'bes Mmbrtiwg tfid Meilqhemj llilh (Madras, 1HBQ) 
however mentions (p. 44) that tlie IMdas [ havo a traiirMoii tbul asms ago a small 
colony oi Bajsan Catholics residotl near tho AYitlsnrche.' 

s Sets his Mysore, Oantvra m& Malabar (Higgin bottom, 1870), i, 4M, 

3 District MekwwHt ^11. 

* William Keys' sepoH on p. 1 of the Appendix to tW< District M&mial, 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 107 

It was apparently not until 1812 1 that the first lilngliahirien., an C11A.P. 11. 
Assistant Eeveruie Surveyor named William Keys and an apprentice Knrei*il 
named MaeMahon, reached the top o£ the plateau. Psbiqi>. 

To the present generation, familiar with, the beauties of the ■ Ks ? t! aa <* 
Nilg'iri scenery and the delights of its • sweet half- English ' air, it ^l^ aion * 
7S little less ilmn amazing that the fh\-<t sight oi the .range should 
not have suggested the possibility of establishing there a sanitarium 
and a refuge from the heat of the plains, and that the hills should 
have remained in daily view of all the officers at Coimbatore for 
years before a single one of them ventured to exploru them. But 
in those dayti the only hills which were well known were low 
ranges which were full of malaria, and it was not realized that 
above a certain, height all risk of this disease disappeared. As 
Lieutenant Burton, writing in 1847, put lt^ ( we demi- Orientals, 
who know by experience the dangers of mountain air in India, 
only wonder at the daring of the man who first planted a roof-tree 
upon the Neiigherries. ' 

Keys had been sent up to survey the country by the Collector of 
Coimbatore and in due course reported on hiy journey. 3 His only 
comments on the climate were that it waa ' extremely eold and 
uuhealthful, from continual covering of mist and clouds ; ' thai; the 
cattle suffered severely from ' the cold, frost and dews ' unless 
provided with shelter at night; and that he and his companion 
had c experienced great inconveniences from, the inclemency ' of 
the weather. He went up by the old track whioli led from 
Dannayakankottai to Arakod aud the existing village of Denad ; 
and penetrated as far west as Kalhatti ; but he kept to the lower 
levels to the north of Ootaeamund, and never set eyes on the 
beautiful valley in which that place lies. 

His route is shown on one of the maps in Sir Frederick Price's 
forthcoming work i and that volume deals so exhaustively with the 
expeditions made by the other early visitors to the range that it 
will be sufficient here to give the merest resume of their doings. 

! Barton, in hie Ci'oa and the Mm M&tmtains (London, 1BSJJ, 270, says that 
in.1809 'Br. ITord and Captain Bevan traversed tho Kills with s, party of Pioneers 1 
and that certain ' deputy aurveyora nudes- Colonal Monson partially mapped ' 
tham; but neither official records nor such contemporary newspapers as are 
available contain any confirmation of this statement. Tho Army lists of 1810 
show L. G-. Foz-d as an Assistant Surgeon attached to the 10th N.I. and H. Bevan 
as an Snsign in tho 14th N,L 

» Uid. 

'" Tho i-epoH is printed n- extant m tiie Dibtnc' MaiMaL App&ndte, 
xWiii-Ii. 

* Ootoeamwid* a history, by Sir Frederick Price, K.O.S.L, formerly Chief 
Secretary to tho Government ni' Madras (Goym mneait Vre&n, Madras, 100?). 



108 



THE STlLaiEXS. 



Bnslish 
Pebiod. 

Wbish ami 

1818. 



JoKit 

Sullivan, 

1819. 



No record survives of any farther expedition to the ISfilgiris 'by 
Europeans until 1818, sis years after Keys' visit. In the early 
part of that year Messrs. J. 0. Whi.sk and N. W. Kindersley f 
respectively Assistant arid Second Assistant to the Collector of 
Ooiihbatore, went up by the Dannayakankottai- Denad route, crossed 
the plateau m a, south-westerly direction, and descended "by the 
Svmdapatti pass from Manjakambai to the Bhavani valley (by 
which the Portuguese priests came up m 1002), and so back to 
Coimbatore Their esact route across the plateau is not clear, 
but Sir ^Frederick Price considers that they must have gone by 
way of Wellington (then called Jakkatalla) and Kateri and thus 
again missed seeing the Ootacamund valley. What took them up 
to the hills is not certain. One account (Bai'fcie's) says they were 
in. pursuit of a band of the smugglers who in those days, when 
tobacco was a Government monopoly in Malabar; lived by running 
it duty-free from Ooimbatore district, where it was (and is still) 
largely grown, to Malabar. Another story (Grigg's) states that 
they were on a shooting-trip ; a third that they were merely 
exploring ; and a fourth (Jervis') that they were after a refractory 
poligar who had taken refuge on the hills . 

Their account of the delights of the climate led to another 
party — one member of which was Mr. John Sullivan., Collector of 
Coimbatore ; whose name will frequently recar in these pages — 
following partly in their/footsteps in January of the n ext year 1819. 
This party again went up from Dannayakankottai to Denad, and 
thence marched to Dimhatti., just north of Kotagrri, where they 
pitched their tents. 1 Their route thereafter is shown in Sir 
Frederick Price's book. Like their predecessors, they missed the 
Ootacamund "basin. One of them wrote to the papers an account 
of their experiences £ which laid much emphasis on the facts 
that the water froze in their chattis at night ; that they walked 
about up and down hill nearly all day ( without experiencing the 
least inconvenience from heat ; often indeed seeking the sunshine 
as a relief from cold ; ' and that there was no sickness among their 
native followers. It mentioned that strawberries, two kinds of 
( raspberries, ' the "bill *' gooseberry,' white roses, marigolds and 
balsams grew wild; that the crops included wheat, barley, peas, 
opium, garlio and mustard (ali, of oourse, either rare or quite 
unknown on the plains) ; that (another striking contrast to the 
plains) ' it was impossible to move a quarter of a mile in any 
direction without crossing streams ; ' and that the scenery was of 

5 II v. lj5. B. Thomas' statement to Mr. fi-rigy, quoted in tlie Diairicb Manual, 
280. 

E TUis is printed in full in filifl District Manual, Appendix, lii-lr. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 109 

{ extraordinary grandeur and magnificence : everything that a CHAP. II, 
combination of mountains, valleys, wood and water can afford is English 
to be seen here ; ! and it wonnd up by saying 1 ' your readers will I>s i BI - QP ' 
perhaps be surprised to learn that frosty regions are to be found 
at no "very great distance from the Presidency [meaning Fort St. 
George], and within eleven degrees of: the equator ' 

In. May 1819 Mr. Sullivan, again went up to the hills for twenty 
days. He was accompanied by the naturalist M. Leschenault de 
la Tour (who had been sent on a scientific expedition to India by 
the French Government, had been brought by sickness ' aux portes 
du tonibeau,' but rapidly recovered in the cool climate) 1 and 
Assistant Surgeon J ones ; and Sir Frederick Price considers that 
the party stopped at Dimhatti and that Mr. Sullivan must on this 
occasion have begun the bungalow there in which he afterwards 
resided. 

In March 1819 Mr. Sullivan had asked the Board of Be venue The first 
for money to make a rough survey of the fields on the plateau — j 3 *' 1 ^'* 10 ^ 1 to 
the existing survey, as has been stated, was only based on 1821. 
estimates— and to make a better way up to thein. He justified 
the expenditure on the latter object by saying' that the revenue 
had been gradually diminishing because the ryots only paid wbat 
they pleased, their inaccessible position rendering' them ( quite 
secure from any coercive measures.'' The Board sanctioned 
Bs. 800 for the survey and Rs. 300 for the way up, and both 
undertakings were entrusted to Lieutenant Evans Macpherson, who 
subsequently was the builder of ( Cluny Hall ' at Ootacamund. 
The bridle-path up the hills was made from Sirnmug , ai near Mettn- 
palaiyam to Kotagiri and its neighbour Dimhatti ; and while the 
work was going on Lieutenant Maopherson lived at a bungalow 
he had. built at Jakkan&ri on the existing ghat to 3£6tagiri. 
Pioneers and convict labour from Coimbatore and Salem were 
utilized. It may here be noted that the path was opened in. 1821 
and reported as completed in May 1828, and that it remained the 
best route to the hills from the Coimbatore side until the first 
Ooonoor gh&t was made in 1880-32, 

Lieutenant Maopherson, at Mr. Sullivan's request, wrote in 
June 1890 a long report on the hills and their climate, 3 which 

1 An account of Ms visit ant! the bills which h« wrote m July to a Ceylon 
paper will "be found in the Appendix to Hough's Letters on tTie JSTeilgherriM (Londou, 
1828) and a paper on the flora of -the Nilgiris, forwarded with a collection of its 
plants to the Madras Literary Society, is printed in thp Vteirict Manual, 2S2-3, 

H This is printed in Ml on pp. 1? to Ix of the Appendix to the District 
Mcmital, and in UtoBlue Book on -'Papers relative to the formation, of a sani- 
tarium on the Neilghorries for European troops ' which was printed for the 
T$ms& of Commons in 1850. The parporsin this latter, it may be nofeefl,run from 
X821 io 1836 and ara of much interest, 



110 



THE NILGIKIS. 



OHAP. ]J 

PaNtlLISH 



reg.-irdiDg 
its climate 
dista'aditeel. 



was very flattering to both and was forwarded to Government ; 
and in the samo month a. loiter, evidently from Mr. Wuiiivan's 
own pen and couched in the same strain, appeared in the Madras 

The Madras Government appear to hare sent on these and 
other papers to the Government of India, for very shortly after- 
wards the following notice appeared in the Gazette, of India: — 

' We trust thai; future mporte of the salubrity of this sipot will 
remove all the apprehensions that have buen entertained, and thai it 
will become a place of rebort for those whuse state of health may 
require that chauge of temperature which it unquestionably affords. 
Should a continued i-enidum* in these regions prove that the climate 
i^ favourable to the European constitution, it may peihaps be deemed 
expedient hereafter to form a military establishment for pensioners 
and invalids, with a regular hospital,- and if it should become a mili- 
tary station, with Mediual OChcera attached to it, houses would soon 
become erected, and conveniences would be provided for those who 
might be compelled to seek the benefit of the climate ; and, in all 
probability, many persona on the coast, who have withdrawn from 
active life, but who do not intend to return to their native country, 
would take up their future resideuce on tho Neilgherry Mountains.' 

To appreciate the true inwardness of this notice, it must be 
remembered that there were then no hill-stations in India,, and that 
officials who were broken in. health by the climate of the plains 
used to hravel all the way to the Oape or Mauritius (both 
altogether inferior, climatically, to the Nilgiris) to recoup. The 
possibility of there existing in South India,, close to the equator, 
a region where the climate was cool and invigorating enough not 
only to restore invalids to health, but to induce retired officials to 
settle down in it was at that time to most people absolutely 
incredible. Lieutenant Burton says that when tho first: visitors to 
the hills stated that the thermometer there was 25 degrees lower 
than on the plains ' such a climate within the tropics was considered 
so great an anomaly that few would believe in its existence.' it 
was to this popular incredulity that the first sentence of tho notice 
referred. Meanwhilej however, more and more people were 
satisfying themselves by actual trial of the truth of the statements 
which had been made. ~By June 1820 upwards of twenty gentle- 
men had visited the plateau and one lady (apparently Mrs. Sullivan.) 
c without any inconvenience to herself and without giving 
particular trouble to the bearers.' l In 1831 some families took 
up their temporary abode there. 3 They doubtless resided at 
Dimhatti (where Mr. Sullivan had now a bungalow) or at Kotegiri 
Ootaeamund was still undiscovered. 

1 District Maimed, 28 L, 

3 Hoosfh's Letters oft Wi* Neilgrherriw, 10, 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 



Ill 



The first mention of that place (under the alias of ' Wotoky- chap. II, 
mimci ') occurs in a letter of March 1821 to the Madras G-mette by e.ygush 
an anonymous and unknown correspondent who had penetrated PKai0U - 
from IMmhattl as far west as Mukarti Peak by way of Gotacamund Fn-stmeati . 
and Nanjana'd. This letter shows that, another party had made o£ Ootaca - 
fche same trip by the same route in February of the year before. muu ' BS1 
Who they were is similarly unknown, but they were apparently 
the first. Europeans to set eyes on the Ootacamivnd basin. 
Mr. Sullivan, however, was the first European to reside there. In 
1822 he began its first house, Stonehouse, the nucleus of the 
present Government offices, and it was mainly owing to his 
enthusiasm for the place and his faith in its future that it rapidly- 
developed until it became the capital of a district and the summer 
head-quarters of the Government. 

In the same year appeared the first official medical reports on 
the hills, written by three officers who had been deputed for the 
purpose by the Medical Board, at Government's request, 1 One of 
these .by Assistant Surgeon Orton of the 34th Regime tit, discussed 
the best site for an '* establishment for invalids ' should it be 
decided to locate one on the Nilgiris. It pointed out that Dim- 
hatti would be convenient for supplies, owing to the new road 
and ' on account of the Collector's establishment being placed 
there,' but showed a preference for the higher country further 
west and pitched upon the tract immediately west of Sholur as 
possessing the greatest number of advantages, including easy 
access from Mysore by a neighbouring pass. It suggested the 
erection of a few temporary buildings for sick officer**, ' similar 
to some already raised by Mv. Sullivan for travellers,' ro that 
experiments regarding the effects of the climate might be made 

Mr. Sullivan's prompt action had however already decided 
the question of the best site for a settlement and he was already 
at work on the improvement of the spot he had chosen. In Sep- 
tember 182 'i, by which time the building of Stonehouse was well 
advanced, he requested Government's permission to enclose 500 
ballas (3,910 acres) of land, which was then all unoccupied, to 
make experiments in agriculture and horticulture. c The experi- 
ments/ be said, ' may eventually prove useful to the public, nnd 
the expense of making them will be my own.' He took much 
interest in such, matters, had apparently already started a flower 
a ad kitchen garden at his bungalow at Dimhatti (see p. 326), had 
begun another on the saddle just east of Stonehouse itself, and 
had employed a Scotch gardener named Johnstone to look after it. 

See the Parliamentary Bine BcsoTi above sited. 



It becomes 
the capital of 
the: plateau, 
1822. 



112 



THE NIMBIS, 



English 
Psriop, 



to tli en. 



CHAP. II. In tliose days and for some years afterwards, until experience and 
trial had proved the hope to be vain, it was confidently hoped 
and believed that "because the Nilgiris possessed a climate nearly 
resembling that of England every description of English fruits, 
vegetables, flowers and live-stock would flourish as well as they 
did in the old country, and that the plateau aught easily be colo- 
nized by military pensioners and Eurasians residing on small 
holdings and living by agriculture and stock-raising. Govern- 
ment sanctioned Mr. Sullivan's proposal, and the land be obtained 
was the valley near Bishops down. Xa parts of this some very 
ancient apple trees may still be seen, but he never enclosed more 
than a portion of the extensive area for which he had applied. 

Progress up Xn 1821-22 Captain B. S. Ward, "who was originally one of 

Colonel Colin Mackenzie's assistants and whose work in other 
parts of the Presidency is wellimown, surveyed and mapped the 
hills (excluding the Kundahs and the Ouchterlony Valley, .which 
then belonged to Malabar) and wrote a memoir upon them. 1 This 
was not submitted to Government until 1826, but was apparently 
written about the end of 1882 and thus is of interest as showing 
the progress which had been made up to then in opening up the 
ISfilgiria. 

Captain Ward says that in addition to the houses at Bimhatti, 
Jakkaneri and Oo-tacanrund already mentioned, temporary bunga- 
lows for the convenience of travellers had been put up at Kodava- 
mudi (between Kotagiri and Gotaeamund), Nanjanad, I£il6r 
(Manjakambai) and YellanbalH. European vegetables had been 
tried and thrived exceedingly well, as also apples, strawberries, 
etc. There were no crows on the hills at that time. The 
Sirnmugai-Dinihatti route already mentioned was ( the most fre- 
quented by travellers and admits of palanquins : horses and laden 
cattle go up it with much ease/ A temporary bungalow had 
been built on it at ( Seralu, a delightful situation amidst lofty 
wood, about 4,000 feet above the plain,' and the distance by it 
from the bank of the Bhavani to the Drmhatti bungalow was 16-| 
miles. The tract from Dannayak(mk6ttai to Bimhatti bungalow 
was 20 miles 7 furlongs in length, and would ■' scarcely admit 
of laden cattle, being very ragged and rocky. 3 There was 
a temporary bungalow at Benad on this route. The way from 
the Kilur bungalow down to Sundapatti was ten miles long '• in a 
great measure steep' hnt £ on the whole a tolerable path,' Prom 
Bimhatti a path 17 miles 6 furlongs in length ran to Sholur 

J Thie is printed, in full on pp. Is to Isxviii , of fch$ Appendix fco the 
pistriet Mwmal, 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 113 

via Kukal, Kagguchi, Kodavamudi bungalow, Tuneri and Kalhatti ; CHaP. II 
and another, 15| miles long, led to Ootacamund by a circuitous English 
route through tbe present Wellington, Yellanhalli (tlie present !^1 D ' 
Half Way House on the Coonoor- Ootacamund road, where there 
was a bungalow), Keti and tbe gap through which the Coonoor 
road now enters the Ootacamund basin. A party of Pioneers 
were however making a more direct route (since quite abandoned) 
which took a line further north than the existing Kotagiri-Oota- 
canumd road but entered the Ootacamund basin by tlie same 
saddle which the present road crosses. By this the distance 
between Diinhatti and Ootacamund was ten miles and three 
furlongs. These Pioneers were commanded by the same Lieu- 
tenant Macpherson who had made the Sirumugai ghat, and he had 
built a bungalow for himself at Eallia about midway between 
Kofcagiri and Ootacamund. A school for the hill people had 
been started at Denadj, but had failed. 

In 1823 Mr, Sullivan obtained Rs. 5,000 from Government improve- 
for completing' the track across the hills to Grudaldr and the ^ nt g„ 18a3 
Wynaad, and in 1821- another Ks 6,500 for opening out the and 1825. 
Karkiir ghat to the Wynaad from Malabar (which had been 
allowed to fall into disrepair) and for improving the route from 
the top of it to Mysore. In Ootacamund itself, too, he had not 
been idle, and by 1824 had begun making tbe lake. But he had 
not succeeded in inducing Government to agree to his reiterated 
proposals to establish a sanitarium there. 

In September 1825, however, Sir Thomas Mnnro (then 
Governor of Madras) appointed a committee consisting of Mr. 
Sullivan, Lieutenant Evans Macpherson and Staff Surgeon Haines 
to frame detailed plans for providing accommodation for invalids ; 
and on the recommendation of this body he shortly afterwards 
sanctioned lis. 10,000 for purchasing and furnishing for invalids a 
bungalow at Ootacamund belonging to a Captain Dun which stood 
on the site oil the present Bombay House.- To meet the great 
difficulty uf getting supplies at Ootacamund, he also sanctioned 
the cost of establishing on the hills European military pensioners 
who were to grow vegetables and raise poultry. But none came. 

In September 1826 Sir Thomas went up to the Mils in person Sir Thomas 
for a few days, lie marched to Kotagiri and thence along the Jgg^ ' 9 T1Mt ' 
PioneeiV new track above referred to fco Ootacamund, where he was 
Mr. Sullivan's guest at Stonehouse. Gleig's Life ofMumo(l$ZQ) 
contains a charming description of the hills which he wrote from 
Ootacamund to his wife, then on her way to England. He was 
immensely struck with the view from the hill just north of and 
3 5 



114 THE BTILGIBIS. 

OHAP. 11. above the saddle already mentioned by wMcli the road enters the 
.English Ootacamund basin, which, he wrote, was ' so grand and magnificent 
Feriqd ' that I shall always regret your not having seen it.* This was 
apparently a show panorama in those days, for others also mention- 
its "beauty, Mnnro refers to the purple Strobiknthes, the ' little 
loch ' which ( winds very beautifully among- the smooth green 
hills ' and down which he was rowed, the brightness of the sun 
which ' poured a dazzling lustnre upon everything, as if two suns 
were shining' instead of one ' and above all the cold. ' I am writing 
in a great coat/ he said, '' and my Sogers can hardly hold the pen. 
I am almost afraid to go to bed on account of the cold. The first 
night I came up the hills I did not sleep at all.' 
Government The result of his visit was further action on the part of 

assistance to Government to utilize Ootacamund as a sanitarium. Advances 
1827. ' amounting to Ks. 1 5,000 were sanctioned in January 1827 to Captain 

Dun. and others to enable them to build bungalows suitable for 
invalids ; and, this having resulted in nothing, Stonehouse was 
rented by Government in June, at Monro's own suggestion, for two 
and a half years as quarters for sick officers, while Surgeon Haines, 
who had for some time been living in Ootacamund, was appointed 
as .Resident Medical Officer. Mum-o died in July 1827 of cholera 
at Pattikonda in Kurnool, during a farewell tour to Ms beloved 
Ceded Districts, and was succeeded as G-overnor in October by 
the Eight Honourable Stephen Rumbold Lushington, who did 
more than any other roan to bring to notice and render available 
the many advantages of Qotaeamnnd as a sanitarium. 

People were just beginning to believe the accounts of its 
climate which had been spread abroad. It is difficult nowadays 
to understand the obstinate incredulity with which these were for 
years received. The matter is well put in the Letters on the Neil- 
gherrks which were written in 1826 to the Bengal JHurkaru above 
the signature c Philanthropos ' (and afterwards published in book 
form) by the Rev. James Hough, a Chaplain on the Madras estab- 
lishment who had been to the Nilgiris for his health and was 
most anxious to acquaint others with the benefits to be derived 
from the place and to persuade the Government of India to 
■patronize it as a sanitarium, He said :— 

( notwithstanding* Hie uniformity of the accounts given m favour 
of these mountamw by all parties who had ascended them, yet so noto- 
i'icms is the insalubrity of hilly f-ouiitri.es in India that it was for 
some time vain to plead the superior elevation of the NeilgherrieK, 
their freedom from jungle, or the healthy state ot their inhabitants, to 
prove them an exception, An inreteralp prejudice seemed to exist 



POLITICAL HISTOEY. 11.5 

which nothing could remove; so that it was long before any persons CU.VP. 11. 
at a distance could be induced to believe what they heard. At length, Exolish 
however, the number of those who visited the hills became so great. Period. 
find all the reports of them -wore so favourable, that incredulity grew 
ashamed of itself, and was literally forced to surrender : and after 
seven years quarantine the Indian community ore beginning' to reap 
toe advantages of this interesting and valuable discovery. 1 

A report oi September 182:7 by Mr, Sullivan sums up the Progress up 
progress made up to then at Ootacamund. Seventeen European bo t]ie:H - 
houses had been built, ten of which were private property (five 
more had been erected at Kotagiri) and 

' Koa&s have been made m all directions about the settlement so 
tha-t invalids may take either horse or palanquin exercise with almost 
as much facility as in the low country. A fine piece of water lias 
also been constructed, on which boats are beginning' to ply. A sub- 
scription has been set on foot for a public reading-room. Ootaoamund, 
in short, is gradually approximating: to a state of comfort and civili- 
sation.' 

Mr. Lushington became Grovernor very shortly after tins Sir. S. &. 
report was written, and within a month of taking charge sent a Lushing-ton 
long string of questions to the committee already referred to, Governor, 
which was called the ( Ootacamund Station Committee/ about 
the settlement. The answers to this, dated November 1827, 
show that Government then possessed in the place four bunga- 
lows upon which they had spent Es. 20,000, and bad advanced 
Es. 32j000 more for the construction of others (thirteen of which 
were being put up) ; that, there were at Ootacamund four private 
bungalows which could be leased, at Kotagiri three, and at 
Ballia (midway between these two places) another ; that Mr. 
Sullivan had made over the Stonehouse garden, ten acres in 
extent^ to a European on condition that he sold the produce to 
the public ; that advauces had been, made to natives to open 
bazaars and that there were then 500 people and 23 bazaars in the 
place so that ( the market is now well and regularly supplied 
with every essential article ' (except br^ad) ; that a public 
establishment of palanquin-bearers was kept up ; and that villages 
were beginning to spring up at the foot of the passes. 

On this, Mr. ImaKngton wrote a lengthy minute l detailing His support 
the further steps he considered necessary ; and on 11th December of fc tf e 
1 827 Government directed that two companies of Pioneers should 8Mn ' SlVmm ' 
be immediately seat to improve the road from Mysore ; that 
bungalows should be built at BilHkal, the then top of it, and at 
Sigur and TippaMdu in the low country at its foot ; that at 

1 See the Blue Book and KM.C, of 11th December, 



116 



THE HIL81B1S. 



on a p. n. 

English 
Period. 



.His vis5t to 
fcha Mils, 



Ootaoamnnd a hospital for 40 invalid soldiers costing 1 Lis. 10,500 
(afterwards turned into the District Jail and now used as offices 
for the deputy tabsildar and others) and ten bungalows to bold 
four bachelors or two families each, costing Es. f> 3 800 apiece, 
should "be built ; that the timber for them and their furniture 
should be supplied by the gun-carriage factory at Seringapatam ; 
that the Commissary- Genenl should send np a supply of eluirtam 
and band; and finally that, since with the expansion which would 
doubtless follow these steps the care of the Nilgiris would c be 
sufficiently burdensome to constitute a separate charge,' Major 
William Kelso, 26th N.I. (who afterwards built ' Kelso House '), 
should be appointed 'Commanding Officer on the Neilgherries ; ' 
and that the Collectors of the neighbouring districts and even 
the Kesident of Mysore should lend him every assistance m their 
power so that work might be pushed oo at once and thoroughly, 

Mr. Sullivan's dream was thus at last fulfilled and Ootaca- 
rauBd became the sanitarium of Madras. But his joy at this 
consummation of his hopes must have been considerably damped 
by Government's action, in handing over his bantling to the care 
of another. Differences of opinion between him and Major Kelso 
arose almost at onoe in connection with the allotment of land for 
a military bazaar, which they had been directed to arrange in 
consultation. Major Kelso wished to mark out a huge canton- 
ment ten or twelve square miles in extent with its bazaar at the 
spot now called Charing Cross, while Mr. Sullivan desired to 
restrict it to a small site for a bazaar, which he wanted to locate 
near the west end of the lake. Eventually a compromise was 
arranged by which the cantonment baaaar, public offices, hospital, 
etc. were located on the spur now called Jail Hill above the lake. 
Mr. Sullivan was popularly considered to have been obstructive 
in the matter, and he thought it necessary to write privately to 
the Governor to disavow any such attitude. 1 

Early in 1829 Mr. Lushington went to Ootacamund — travelling 
by the Gudalur ghat, which was then almost finished — to see how 
matters were progressing, and while there he laid the foundation 
stone of St. .Stephen's Church (which, see p. 859, was apparently 
named alter him) ; directed Lieutenant LeHardy to trace the 
first ghat from Mettupalaiyam to Coonoor, which shortened the 
distance to Ootacamund by many miles ; and gibbeted in severe 
terms tire conduct o£ Captains Macpheraon. and Dun and Surgeon 
Haines in charging exorbitant rents (amounting in some cases to 
60 per cent, of the capital value) for the houses they had built 
from Government advances on. land for which they had paid 

1 Bee his. letter of 15th March X828 printed in JsitIs 1 book, p#, 103-6. 



POLITICAL HISTGKY. 117 

nothing. In the same year he began (on Jail Hill) the hospital OHAP. 11, 
referred to on the preceding page ; bought for Government the Exglish 
house now called Bishopsdown from its "builder, Mr. Sullivan, for Periou, 
Ks. 35,000 ; and projected on an ambitious scale the experimental 
farm at Keti which is referred to on p. 202 below. 

Mr. Sullivan took furlough early in 1880 and was succeeded Part of the 
as Collector of Ooimbatore "by Mr. James Thomas. In January E^n* 3 * 11 , * 
1830 the greater portion of the hills, including the low country to Malabar, 
to the north of them but excluding the area round Kotagiri, was 
transferred to Malabar on the ground that this was the best way 
of cheeking the tobacco-smuggling Already referred to which 
went on between Coimbatore and Malabar. Mr. Sullivan pro- 
tested in a long and powerful minute, but it was not until many 
years later,, when ho had become a Member of Council; that Ids 
views were allowed to prevail 

About this time a tahsildar with magisterial and revenue 
powers was appointed to the hills and Surgeon Haines was 
replaced as Medical Officer "by the Dr. It. Baikie whose subsequent 
book on the Nilgiris (1.834) is so well known. 

Orders were also given that a more direct route than that New roads 
then, in use via the Karkur and Gudalux ghats should be opened lt '' 
between Ootaoamund and Calicut ; and in 1 831 Captain W". 
Murray, in charge of the Pioneers, Major Crewe, Assistant 
Commissary-General of Ootaoamund, and Lieutenant LeHardy 
(whose Coonoor ghat, began in 1880, had already ousted all 
other routes on the Coimbatore side of the plateau) selected the 
route afterwards called the Sispara ghat (which was then one 
of the tobacco- smugglers' paths and passes down the extreme 
south-west corner of the Kundahs) as the best line. Work was 
begun in January j832 under Captain Murray, who established 
Pioneer camps at Avalanche and Sispara, and by the middle of 
the year he reported that the K/andah pass, as re was then called, 
was open. The track however was of the roughest, and much 
more work on it was necessary later. 

It was at that time thought that the Coonoor and Sispara 
passes would become the two main routes to the hills, the 
objections to the Sigur and Gudalur routes being the imminent 
risk of malaria which every one ran who travelled through the 
dense jungles at the bottom of them. So great was the dread of 
this fever that troops from Bangalore marched via, the Coonoor 
gh.it, which was 60 miles further round. 

Other improvements not initiated by Government were also 
carried out at Ootaoamund in Mr. Lushingtoa's time. The 



118 



THE NILGIR1S. 



English 



Other 

improve- 



Progress 
to 1833. 



Church Missionary Society started, about 1832, a school for 
Europeans j having built for it the house now known as Sylk's 
Hotel 1 ; Sir William Rumbold began, in 1831, the erection oi a 
hotel which is now (see p. 863 ) the Club ; the Bombay Government 
had purchased, in 1828, as quarters for its invalid officers, the 
building which was named Bombay House in consequence; and 
three Parsis from Bombay, among* them the firm of Framjee 
& Co- which was afterwards so well known, had opened large 
.shops, 'I ho opening of the Coouoor ghat had also (see p. 228) 
laid the foundation of the settlement of Coonoor, but had given 
a blow to Kotagiri and Dimhatti from which neither have ever 
recovered. 

Meanwhile the Directors, with their usual frugality and 
caution, were becoming uneasy at the large expenditure which 
was being Incurred on the now health-resort, and m March 1832 
asked for detailed particulars of what had been done and of the 
advantages which were expected to accrue from all this outlay. 
The Government seem to havo been forewarned of this, for while 
the despatch was on its way they appointed a committee consist- 
ing of Captain Eastment, who had succeeded Major Kelso as 
Officer- Commanding, and two other military men to investigate 
the expenditure incurred up to then, and that still necessary, on 
. buildings, roads, bridgos, etc. and to describe the prospects of 
the station. This body reported in August 1832. It recom- 
mended the encouragement of Major Crewe's scheme for the 
colonization of the hills by Europeans and Eurasians s and the 
formation of a cattle-breeding establishment to supply animals 
for the public service and salt beef for the Navy ; reported oa 
the various public buildings, including St. Stephen's Church, 
the hospital (usually known as the Convalescent Depot), Bishops- 
down (which Mr. Lnshington. had been using as a residence and 
was then, called ' Wouthdowns '), the different Public Quarters 
(among which were the houses now called "Westlake and 
Caerlayerock), the Native Barracks (by Charing Cross), the 
Choultry (near the Willow Bund), the Lock Hospital (below Jail 
Hill) and the Public Bazaar ; suggested the erection of certain 
bridges in Ootacanumd and a bridge of boats across the Bkayani 
at Metir&palaiyam ; proposed the partial abandonment of the 
Sirumugai ghat, since the Coonoor and Qudalur ghats (though 
their gradients were as steep as 1 in 8) would on completion j it 
was declared* ' be easy for travellers and wheeled carnages of any 

1 The prospectus of this will be £onnd in Appendix V of the first edition of 
Baikie's Keilgherries. 

2 This i$ outlined in Appendix Y} of the first edition oi Baikie'a BeUgherries, 



Period . 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 119 

description almost throughout the year;' stated that the chap. u. 
suitability of the hills aB a sanitarium was ( proved beyond a English 
doubt,' backing their opinion with a report specially drawn up 
by Dr. Eaikie; and suggested that the Nilgiris should be 
committed to c the superintendence and undivided control of one 
aotive officer,' 

Mr. Lushington's Government agreed with this last pro- 
posal, appointed Major Crewe Commanding Officer and altered 
certain other appointments ; passed orders on the other sugges- 
tions in the report ; and forwarded that document to the 
Directors ■with the observation that they were confident that the 
Court would be glad to see at how small an expense they had 
been able ' to open to the sick of all the Presidencies the use of 
the blessings which have been bestowed upon us in. the Nilgiris 
in a temperate climate, a. fertile soil s and a beauty of scenery not 
surpassed in any region of the globe/ and slyly suggested that 
c similar statements of expense incurred at what are denominated 
fche sanitaria of Bengal and Bombay ' might be called for, as they 
had met with ( no persons so deeply and so gratefully impressed 
with the superior benefits of the Nilgiris as those who -visited the 
hills from Bengal and Bombay. 3 

Mr. Lushington retired in 1832, having done more for the 
Nilgiris than any other man. ' It -will be the glory of Mr. 
Lushington's Government/ wrote one officer, i without aoy extra- 
vagant hyperbole, that he has introduced Europe into Asm, for 
such are his improvements in the Neilghemes.' His last acts 
were cordially to thank the various officers who had helped him in 
the work and to place at the disposal of the sick certain, bunga- 
lows at "Dimbatti (see p. 32G) which were his private property. 
His enthusiasm for the new Paradise which bad been opened to 
the dwellers in the torrid plains was infections, and one result of 
it was the publication, during his rule and soon afterwards, of a 
series of boohs, brochures and articles on the Nilgiris which 
reflect in a striking manner the wonder and delight which were 
then felt in advantages which are now taken as a matter of course 
and cease to inspire any unwonted rapture. Among these were 
OaptainHarkness J ,Dr, Baikie'sand Captain Jervis' books already 
often cited, not the least interesting portions of which are the 
sketches and plans they contain of Ootacamund, Coonoor and 
DimhattL in their infancy. Some of those in Baikie's work are 
so crude that they raise a smile nowadays, but the author was 
proud of them because they were the ( first attempt to produce 
coloured landscapes o£ Indian scenery ' and they certainly present 
& vivid picture of the country as it was in those days. 



120 



THE NILGtXKIS. 



EH&LI3H 

Period, 

The 

Convalescent 
BSpSfc 

abolished by 
Sir 3?, Adam, 
1834. 



Other 
changes by 
liia Goyem- 
xaenfc. 



Mr. Lushington was succeeded as Governor "by Sir Frederick 
Adam. In July 1834, on the hitter's motion, the Convalescent 
D«Sp6t } wMcK Bad been moved in 1882 to Southdowns, was 
abolished and the Lock Hospital was turned into an ordinary 
hospital- The grounds for this step, which was debated at 
immense length by the medical authorities, wore that the De'p6t 
had been less used and proved of smaller value than had been 
anticipated, and was expensive to keep up. The medical staff on 
the hills was also reduced now that Ootacamund was no longer 
an official sanitarium ; Stoneliouso, winch (see above) had been 
rented by Government as quarters for sick officers, was given up 
in this same year; and oi' the remaining houses then belonging 
to Government Bombay House was burnt down, Westlake and 
Oaerlaverock were sold in 1836 and Southdowns in 1839. 

Changes in the administration of the hills were also made. 
The existing arrangement was undoubtedly unsatisfactory. The 
plateau was divided between the Collectors of Malabar and Ooirn- 
batore and consequently neither took much interest in its affairs, 
while the authority of the military Commandant was confined to 
Ootacamund itself. The failure to apprehend the perpetrators of 
a massacre in 1885 by the hill people of 58 Kurumbas suspected of 
witchcraft drew attention forcibly to the matter, and Government 
desired to vest in one officer the powers of a Collector, Magistrate 
and Justice of the Peace (and also certain civil jurisdiction) 
throughout the hills. This was however found to be impossible 
without special legislation, and such legislation the Government 
oi! India refused to sanction, holding that the necessity for it was 
not sufficiently proved. In July 1837, therefore, the idea was 
abandoned and Ootacamund remained a ' military bazaar/ the 
equivalent, in those days, of a cantonment. 

Other acts of Sir Frederick Adam's Government were the 
fixing of the assessment to be paid for lands taken up by settlers 
and the virtual acknowledgment of the rights of the To das in the 
plateau, both of which subjects are referred to again in Chapter XL 

Though succeeding Governors evinced a less personal and 
enthusiastic interest in the Nilgiris than had been shown by 
Mr. Lushington, the advantages of the hills were now so widely 
known and appreciated that they progressed vapidly none the less 
A detailed account of the steps by which this was achieved 
would occupy far more space than is here available ; especially 
since Sir Frederick Price's forthcoming work treats so exhaustively 
of the fortunes of Ootacamund, the hub of the district. 

Lord Elphinsfcone became Governor in 1837, and during his 
rule the hills first began to be opened up for coffee estates. In 



POLiriOAT, HISTOUY, 121 

1839 Mr. Sullivan, who was now a Member ot Council, re-opened CHA.P. II. 
the question of tliu transfer back to Ooimbatore of the western English 
portion of the district which had been added to Malabar in 1830. 7sMm - 
Much coi'respon donee ensued and in the end the Commandant of The plateau 
Ootacannmd was appointed Joint Magistrate to the Magistrates J^batore-^ 
of Malabar and Ooimbatore and also District Munsif. His I8i3. 
designation, was changed to Star! Officer (it was changed back 
again in 1848) and ho was given two assistants, one to be in 
charge of the roads and the other of post offices and mis- 
cellaneous work. 

In 1843. however, tho Marquis of Tweeddale, who had 
succeeded Lord hjiphinstono, adopted Mr. Sullivan's original 
proposal and retrausferrcd to Ooimbatore the tract taken from it 
in lS.'^Oj, leaving' to Malabar the country west of the Paikara river 
and the Kundahs. The Marquis' rule is also memorable for the 
decision to establish (see p. 341) the depot at Wellington. 

In 1855 a Principal Sadr Amin's Court was established at 
Ootaeainund and the Commandant ceased to be District Munsif. 
His duties, however, were still sufficiently varied He was 
Magistrate and Justice of the Peace ; Director of the Police ; 
Civil, Military and Pension Paymaster ; and Station Staff Officer ; 
while in addition, as he complained, ' the public, particularly 
the European portion of it, insisted upon his fulfilling self- 
assumed offices similar to the functions of banker, solicitor, 
notary public, arbitrator and land surveyor.' The Union -Tack 
used to be hoisted on a flagstaff near his office when he was there, 
and this custom survived until the seventies, by which time a 
whole series of different ilugs wa.s necessary to denote the presence 
of the various officials, and also the arrival of the mails and of the 
money for pay and pensions The Joint Magistrate had then 
to be content with a white and blue Bag, the Union Jack being 
reserved to indicate that the Council was sitting at Stonehouse. 
In 1855 an Act was passed empowering the Judge of Coirnba- 
tore to hold criminal sessions on the hills. In 1859 the post of 
Commandant was at length altogether abolished, that of Joint 
Magistrate continuing} and the military police of Qotacaraund 
were placed under the civil authorities. 

In 1858 the Principal Sadr Amin was replaced by a Subordi- The Kundahs, 
nato Judge and the part of the plateau west of the Paikara, the ^°i S 6(f ed *° 
ICundahs, and the low country to the north of tho plateau were 
put under his jurisdiction. In May 1 860 these areas were annexed 
to the Ooimbatore district for revenue purposes. In 1863 the 
absences of the Ooimbatore Judge on the salubrious hills for 
criminal sessions were found to be so : frequent and protracted ' 
46 



12S 



THE BttLfllBlS. 



CHAP. rr. 
English 

It is placed 
tmdor a Com- 
missioner, 
1868. 



The Ouchter- 
lony Valley 
mn3 the 
Wynaad 
added to if - -. 



•—Ifc becomes a 
Collocf orate, 
1882. 



as to interfere with it is work at his head- quarters, and a special 
Civil and Sessions Judge for the Nilgiris was appointed. 

He, however, had almost nothing to do and in 1868 the post 
was abolished by an Aft which separated the Nilgiris altogether 
from Ooimbatore and placed it under a Commissioner and Assist- 
ant Commissioner who had combined revenue, criminal and 
civil jurisdiction. The Commissioner became Collector, Civil and 
Sessions Judge and Principal Sadi* Amin, and the Assistant 
Commissioner became Assistant Collector. 'District Munsif and 
District Magistrate. The latter officer was aided in his magis- 
terial work by Joint Magistrates for Ootacamund and for Welling- 
ton and Ooonoor. Both of these were military men, had full 
magisterial powers, and were assigned a definite territorial juris- 
diction ; and the former presided regularly at the sittings of the 
Ootacamund Bench and the latter occasionally at the Kotagiri 
Bench. The latter, in addition, was Cantonment Magistrate of 
Wellington and had small cause powers. By the Act of 1868 the 
Commissioner and his Assistant had also been invested with 
small canse powers. Tlioir authority in all matters was conter- 
minous, the district not being split into divisions. 

In 1873 the Ouehterlony Valley, and in 1877 the South-east 
Wynaad, were added to the district. In other ways also its 
importance increased rapidly. Coffee, tea and cinchona had been 
planted on larg'e areas ; Ootacamund and Ooonoor had been 
growing daily ; the native population of the hills had advanced in 
numbers and wealth ; and the district had become the recognized 
hot-weather residence of Government, 

In 1882, therefore, it was put on the same footing- as other 
districts and the Commissioner became Collector and the Assist- 
ant Commissioner became Head Assistant Collector, while a 
Deputy Collector was appointed to look after the treasury work 
end a deputy tabsildar to take charge of the Ootacamund taluk. 
For purposes of civil and criminal justice the district was put 
under the Judge of Ooimbatore, the Collector was made an 
Additional Sessions Judge, and a Subordinate Judge, who had 
also the powers of a first-class magistrate and a smalL cause court, 
was appointed to Ootacamund. The office of Joint Magistrate 
of Ootacamund was abolished ; the similar post at Wellington 
had been done away with shortly before. 

These arrangements still continue. The details of revenue 
'and judicial administration are : referred to in Chapters XI and 
XIII respectively 



THE PEOPLE. 123 

CHAPTER III. 
THE I'EOPLK. 



General Characteristics — Density of the population — Its growth — Languages 
npokcn — Religions — Parais — Mnsalrrums. Christian Missions — Roman 
Catholic Mission —The Church Missionary Society— The Chinch of England 
Zenana Mission Society — The Basel Lutheran Mission — The American 
Mission— Other Nonconformists. Phinciv-at. Cabtjss — Eadagas — K"3t.as — 
Todas— .[rajas-- Kurnmbas— delations hetprccn the fire tribes — Ohettia — 
Maadadan Cliettis — WynaaeEan Chettis — Paniyans. 



CHAP. III. 



The Nil girl district contains far fewer people than any other 
Colleetorate in the Presidency — fewer, indeed, than many taluks Genebat, 
in the plains and less than a fourth of the population of Madras C^abact&b- 

town — and the number of persons to the square mile there is less * 

than in any other part of the Province except Kurnool district Density 
and the wild jungly { Agencies ' of the three northern districts, population. 
The population is least sparse (220 persons to the square mile) in 
the Ooonoor taluk, hut even there it is SO per square mile below 
the average for the Presidency as a whole, while in the Ootaca- 
mund and Gridalur taluks it is as small as 86 and 75 persons 
respectively to the square mile. Even the Ganjam Agency is less 
sparsely peopled than this. 

During the twenty years 1881-1901 (the census of 1871 did ita growth. -- 
not include the Ouchterlony Valley or the South-east Wynaad, 
which then belonged to Malabar, so its figures are of no use for 
purposes of comparison) the population increased at the rats of 
22 per cent. This is by no means a rapid advance ; but the chief 
reason why the figure was not higher was that between 1891 and 
1901, owing to the decline in the coffee-planting industry, the 
inhabitants of the GrMalur taluk decreased by nearly 17 per cent.— 
a greater falling off than occurred in that period in any other 
taluk in the Presidency. 

In the ten years 1891-1901 the people of the Coonoor and 
Ootacanmnd taluks increased by 22 and 20 per cent, respectively, 
against the average for the Presidency as a whole of 7 per cent, ; 
but over one-third of this advance occurred in the population of 
their two head-quarter towns (the inhabitants of both of which 
have more than doubled since 1871) and was due largely to immi- 
gration from the Tamil districts, especially Coimbatore, The 



124: 



THE HILGIR1S. 



CHAP. III. 

GSKEBAi 
il A U ACT ER- 
ISTICS. 



Languages 
apoken. 



Beligkms, 



Badagas 
K<Stas 
Todas 
Kumniljii: 



Population in 

1891. 1901. 

20,363 31,158 

1,201 1,267 

730 805 

3,906 4,083 



crease. 
16 



3 



marginal figures show that the castas indigenous to the plateau 

increased less rapidly. 
The peojue of the Nil- 
ghis consist, indeed, 
v e ry larg ely of immi- 
grants. At the census 
of 1901, out oX every __ 
100 of them only 50 were born within the district, while the re- 
maining 41 came from elsewhere. 

The district contains a smaller proportion of females to males 
than any other in the Presidency, there "being only 84 of the 
former to every 100 of the latter The chief reason for this is 
that the coolies on the tea and coffee estates and the other immi- 
grants olten leave their women kind behind them ; but in three 
ol the indigenous castes there are also fewer women than men. 
Among the To&as there are only 78 females to every 100 males ; 
and among the ICnrumbas and Irulas only 90 and 98 respectively. 
The Badagas, however, include 110, and the Kotas 120, females 
to every 100 males. 

The Nil girls are the most polyglot area in the Presidency. 
Not only do the Badagas, Todas, Kotas and Ku.ru.mbas each 
speak a tongue which has been classified as a separate language 
or dialect, but the plateau stands wlie.ro three vernaculars meet — 
the Tamil of Ooimbatore, the Malayalam of Malabar and the 
Oanarose oX Mysore ISfo less than eight different languages are 
spoken, by at least three per cent, of the people These, to give 
them in the order of the frequency of their occurrence., are Tamil, 
Badaga, Canarcso, Malay&lam., Telugu, Hindustani, English and 
Knrumba. In the Ooonoor and Ootacaimmd taluks Tamil and 
Badaga are each the home-speech of between SO and -10 per cent, 
of the people, while in Gudalur taluk about a third of the popu- 
lation speaks Tamil, a fifth Malay alam and another fifth Oanarese. 
The education and occupations of the l^ople are referred to 
in Chapters IX and YI below. By religion 81 in every 100 of 
them are Hindus or Animists (that is, those who reverence spirits 
and the like, and do not worship the orthodox Hindu gods), 
thirteen are Christians and five are Musalmans. 

There were some 50 Farsis on the Nilgiris in 1901, a higher 
number than is usual in Madras districts, and in Ootacamund, 
near the Army Head-quarters Office, is a Parsi place of burial. 

The Musalmons iuclude, "besides the pure-bred members o£ 
that faith, a number of the Labbuis (Ravutans) and Mappillas 
(Moplahs) who are supposed to be the offspring of Arahs who 



THE PEOPLE. 



12fr 



in tho accounts of those place 



Roman Catholics 


8,971 


.Anglican Commumun 


.,. suo 


Lutheran and allied donoi 


■ni- 


nations 


.. 713 


Presbyterian , 


., 102 


Methodist 


... 18-1. 


JJaptisfc 


3 03 


Others 


51 



came to the Tamil and Malabar coasts centuries ago and married OHAP. Ill, 
Hindu women, of tlio country. The Mappillas are commonest in Chbibtfas 
the Wynaad, where they do much of! the trade of the country. iV * aBJoNa ' 

The Christians tear a higher ratio to the rest of the population 
than m any other Madras district, and this is still the case even 
if the numerous Europeans and Kurasians among them arc left 
out of account. The Nilgirl plateau, indeed, is unusually well 
provided with missionary establishments. The educational work 
these conduct is referred to in Chapter X below. There arc 
Government Chaplains at Ootacamund, Ooonoor and Wellington. 
The churches there, and also that at Kocagiri, are referred to 
in Chapter XV, and the Church 
of England, schools m Chapter X. 
At the census of J 901 the Native 
Christians of the district were 
divided among the various deno- 
minations as shown in the margin . 
It will be seen that the Roman 
Catholics are far more numerous 
than all the rest put together. 
The Roman Catholic Mission in the district is controlled by Roman 
the Paris Society for Foreign Missions aud comes within the juris- 3^^° 
diction of the Bishop of Coimbatorc. Ooui.batoro was separated 
in 1846 from the Vicariate Apostolic of Pondzclierry and in 1850 
was made into a new Vicariate. By the Encyclical Letter of 1st 
September 1886 it was constituted a diocese, and in 3 887 it was 
made suffragan to the Archbishopric of Pondicherry . 

Soon after the first Europeans came to the bills the Oaf. holies 
who accompanied them built two or three small chapels for them- 
selves, 1 In 1889-41) not long after the Goauese Missions were 
transferred to the Paris Society, Father J. B. Beauclair, who had 
been placed in charge of Ootacamund, built in Mettucheri another 
chapelj which is now used for the St. Joseph's middle school. 
The Catholic population increased very rapidly, and in 1859 
Father Payeau laid the foundation of the present St, Mary's 
Church on the Convent Bill. This was gradually completed 
from subscriptions and a Government grant of Rs, 4,000 at a cost 
ox Rs. 25,0C0 by his successor, Father J. B. Pierron, and was 
consecrated on the 15th August 1870. fourteen days later, the 
large dome which had been erected over the sanctuary fell in, 
and subscriptions had to be hastily raised to roof oyer the gap 
with corrugated iron. The building has since been considerably 

1 An account, of thass vrill he found in Sir IVe&oriak Price's hook. 



126 



THE NXLCKBIS. 



ClIBl&TiAN 

Missions. 



The Cimroli 
Missionary 



enlarged and improved. In the cemetery belonging to it is 
buried Q-eneral Sir James Dormer, Commander- in- Chief of the 
Madras Army, who died in May 1893 from wounds inflicted by a 
tiger. 

In time the need of another church was fait, and in 1895 the 
mission bought some land adjoining ' Belmont ' whereon father 
E. Foubert erected the Church of the Sacred Heart. Thies was 
consecrated in February 1897 by the Bishop of Ooimbatore. 

The Nazareth Convent near St. Mary's Church was built in 
1875-76 by Father Triquet. In this, twenty European nuns 
maintain the school for European girls referred to on p. 264 and 
an orphanage which now contains 70 native girls. In the Con- 
vent compound is a lower secondary day school for Eurasian 
children of both sexes under the care of the Mother Superior, 
while the nuns look after two girls' day schools situated in Mettu- 
chen and Kandal respectively. 

At Ooonoor, above the bazaar, stands St. Anthony's Church, 
which was apparently erected in 1876, and at Wellington a 
chapel, built in 1887 with the aid of a grant from Government, 
which is utilised both by the troops there and by the civilian 
natives. Smaller chapels exist at Kotagiri and at Gudalur and 
other places in the Wynaad. Two European priests are working 
in Ootacamund and one at each of the other four places named 
above. 

The Church Missionary Society was the earliest mission to 
begin work on the hills. In 1830-31 it built as a school the 
house now occupied by Sylk's Hotel and (p. 320) owned a 
series of small bungalows at Dimhatti. Its subsequent proceed- 
ings are a mystery, and apparently its work ceased as suddenly 
as it had began. 

In September 1857 1 a ' Tamil Mission ' was organized at 
Ootacamund and a small church was built near St. Stephen's 
Church which was used for service on Sundays and as a school- 
room during the week. In 18 d"8 a hoarding and day school for 
Tamil girls was established in a house at the foot of the hill 
behind the little church. Services in the latter were at one time 
held by a clergyman of the Church Missionary Society and later ' 
the mission and its school were cared for by a local committee, 
the buildings being rested in the Bishop and Archdeacon of the 
diocese. 

3 The account below is baaed on the 5W/i of India Observer Almanac for 
1871, the BiHiricS Manual, 420, and TIib South Indian Missions of the C.M.8, 
(6.P.OX Press, 1905), 12-14. 



THE PEOPLE. 127 

With. the approval of this committee, Archdeacon Dealtry, when CHAP, ill. 
Chaplain of Ootaeamuudj invited the O.M.vS. to take charge of CriHi&'mN 
the mission., promising liberal aid- The O.M.8. did so, and sent -Iis&ions. 
a native pastor to Ootaeamand for the purpose. Later on the 
Chaplain of Ooonoor transferred to the care of the same Society 
another small local mission ia that town, In neither case did the 
Society at first incur any expenditure, grants from the churches 
and local subscriptions providing' the necessary funds. 

Both missions developed, and work in the Wynaad also 
increased; and eventually in 1893 the C.M.S. sent a European 
missionary to reside in Ootaeamand and now contributes a con- 
siderable sum towards the annual expenses. 

In 1898 St. John's Church at Ooonoor, near the hospital, was 
erected and at Gfudalur the Government church is used by the 
Society's preachers. Its work in the Wynaad, however, lies more 
in the Malabar side of that tract than in the Nilgiri- Wynaad, 

The Church of England Zenana Mission Society maintains an The Church 
orphanage at Ootaeamand and has made attempts to teach and " f England 
evangelize the T6das. The Hobart school under its care is re- Mission 
ferred to in Chapter X. Society. 

The beginnings of the Basel Lutheran Mission, on the hills The I 
have been referred to in the account of Keti on p. 332 below. 
Its staff now includes five European missionaries. Keti (where 
there is an orphanage for boys and a lower secondary sohoolj 
is now its head.-quarters and there is a prosperous station, 
started in 1867, in 3£6tagiri, which contains an orphanage for 
girls and a church, presented by Misa M. B. L. Cockburn in 
1869. At Nirkambai, three miles south of Keti., is an out-station 
attached to Keti, a ad there are other stations at Hulikal and 
Tftne'ri. In. 1886 was started the branch of work known as the 
Oooly Mission, which ministers specially to labourers on tea and 
coffee estates. 

The American (Presbyterian) Mission at Coonoor is connected 
with the American Arcot Mission of the Keformed Church in 
America. In 1856 the Kev. Joseph Scudder of that mission and 
his wife were obliged by indifferent health to spend the hot weather 
in Ooonoor, and began work temporarily among the Tamils in the 
neighbourhood. The Basel Mission and the residents of Coonoor 
invited them to found a permanent mission there, and in the nest 
year this was done* Later on, the church which stands oil a 
small hill opposite the railway-station was begun. For many 
years this branch mission waa without a resident missionary, but 
in 1900 the Rev. Jacob Chamberlain; ».»., who has been forty 



Lutheran 
Mission, 



America? 
Mission. 



128 



THE NJLGIKIS. 



CHAP. III. years with the mission and is engaged on. literary work in Telugu 

Christian connected witli its purposes, was deputed to Ooonoor to super- 

^ * ' ' intend the work on the Nilgins in addition to his other duties. 

othor Won- rj^g ^ rs ^ ISJonconformist place of worship at Ootacamund was 

the Zion Chapel, which was built from subscriptions in 1856 and 
dedicated in December of that year by the Rev. Samuel IrXebich 
of the Basel Mission. The Union Ohapel on Church Hill in the 
same town was built in 1896-98 at a cost of Rs. 18,000, of which 
Rs. 7,000 was obtained by the ^alc o.f the Zion Ohapel. 
PiuNciPAi, The people of the Nilgiris, as has been said, consist largely of 

aries immigrants from elsewhere. Besides the Parsis, Alnsalmans and 
Native Christians already referred to. there are as many as 10,000 
Tamil Paraiyans, '1,500 Tamil Yelbtlans, and over 5,000 Tehigus 
of various cartes. These people do not differ in their ways and 
customs from their caste-fellows in the districts from which they 
have come, and need no separate mention. 

The Nilgiri plateau, however, is the special home of three 
communities — the Badagas (cultivators), Kotas (artisans and musi- 
cians) and. Todas (graziers) — which are scarcely found elsewhere ] 
and so deserve some description, and also contains an unusual 
number of the two forest tribes called Irulas and Kurumbas ; 
while in the YVynaad the Chettis (landowners) and Paniyaris 
(farm- labourers), both of them interesting castas, are plentiful. 
Some account of all these people will now lie .given. 

Badagas. 'Phe name JBadaga (corrupted to ' Burgher ' by the early 

Fhiroi-van visitors to the hills) is the same word as Vadaga and 
means ' noi'therner '; and the Badagas of the plateau are the de- 
scendants of Oanarese who immigrated to it centuries ago from 
the Mysore country to the north, owing either to famine, political 
turmoil or local oppression. When this flitting took place there 
is little to show. It mast have occurred after the foundation of the 
Lingayat creed in the latter half of the twelfth century, as many 
of the Badagas are Lingayats by faith, and. some time before the 
end of the sixteenth century, since in 1002 the Catholic priests 
from the West Coast (as has already, p. 105. been seen) found them 
settled on th.p south of the plateau and observing mack the same 
relations with the Todas as subsist to this day. The present 
state of our knowledge does not enable us to fix more nearly the 
date of the migration. That the language of the Badagas, which 
in a form oE Oanarese, should by now have so widely altered from 
its original as to be classed us a separate dialect argues that the 

1 A vMha o[ BiuUsgas Ihfps i'i the Kollegal hills in Coim Ijatorr 1 tliKti-iet and 
there fur a few oi all three fcrihea in (Mdaliir taluk. 



Castes. 



THE PEOPLE, 129 

movement took place nearer the twelfth than the sixteenth century ■ CHAP. in. 

while, on the other hand, the fact (pointed out by Mr. Rivers) that Feincipai 

the Badagas are not mentioned in a single one of the T6das il 

legends ah out their gods, -whereas the Kotas, Kurunibas and 

Irulas each phi/ a part in one or more of these stories, raises the 

inference that the relations "between the Badagas and the Todas 

are recent as compared with those Let ween the other tribes. A 

critical study of the Badaga dialect might perhaps serve to 

fix within closer limits the date of the migration, As now spoken 

this tongue contains letters (two forms of c r \ for instance) and 

numerous words which ai-e otherwise met with only in ancient 

Looks and which strike most strangely upon the ear of the present 

generation of Oanarese. The date when some of these letters and 

words became obsolete might possibly he traced and thus aid in 

fixing the period when the Badagas left the low country. It is 

known that the two forms of ; r ', for example, had dropped 

out of use prior to the time of the grammarian KSsiraja, who 

lived in the thirteenth century, and that the word beita (a hill) 

which the Badagas use in place of the modern befiu is found in the 

thirteenth, century work Sabdamamdarpana, 

The Badagas are now the agriculturists of the hills ; they 
occupy the whole of the eastern half of the plateau except the 
tract round ICodan&d, hut in the west and in the Kundahs they are 
few in number. They are not agriculturists solely, but work on 
estates and roads and as market gardeners and general coolies ; and 
some of them are artisans serving their own community (and 
sometimes others) as bricklayers, carpenters, barbers, washermen, 
etc. Their relations with the othei tribes of the hills are referred 
to later. 

Their villages consist of orderly lines of one-storeyed houses, 
all alike aud nearly always roofed with red tiles, each of which 
possesses a milk-room, which the women (compare the account of 
the Todas below) and young boys are forbidden to enter. Hound 
about the villages are the fields of red soil on which the Badagas 
raise the korali (Selatia glaaca) and samai {Paniewm miliare) 
which are their staple diet. Their cultivation is casual, Little 
manure being- used and few precautions being taken against the 
disastrous scouring of the top-soil which takes place each monsoon. 
The women do nearly all of it except the actual ploughing, and 
work very long hours. On the other hand the women are very 
seldom allowed to come into the tovms to work for daily wages, 
while the men do this in large numbers to eke out the scanty' 
profits of their cultivation, 
17 



130 THE HILOIBIS. 

CHAT?, in. Both sexes of the Badagas may be recognized at a glance. 

Principal 'They are cheery people, of small stature and slightly built, fair- 
jLlr" ykinned, and. dressed, always in white cloths with coloured borders 
of narrow stripes. The men. generally wear the usual waist-cloth, 
upper cloth and turban; hut coats are becoming more popular 
than upper cloths and bright red (or yol low) woollen knitted night- 
caps are almost as often worn as turbans. The women's waist- 
cloths are narrow and leave a good deal of the calf: exposed, and 
1 heir upper cloths (which are quite sepauito) ai'O worn in a cha- 
racteristic fashion, being passed straight across the breasts and 
under the arms, and nut over one shoulder as usual among the 
Tamds. Somo uE them wear a scarf tied round the head. Every 
woman of marriageable age is tattooed on the forehead and upper 
arm in some simple design of dots and lines, the elaborate patterns 
in use ia the plains being unknown. 

Therein no doubt whatever that the Badagas have increased 
greatly m general prosperity since the advent of Europeans to 
the hills. The early accounts of them more than once mention 
their then miserable condition, wretched clothes and emaciatod 
frames ; whereas nowadays they almost all have a prosperous 
air. Even In 1871 only 1,914 lioasos out of the 13,922 in the 
district were tiled ; whereas now tiles are. the rule instead of the 
exception in Badaga villages. 

The earliest account of nay length' of the sub-divisions and 
customs of the Badagas was that of the Bev. F. MeU of the 'Basel 
Mission, published anonymously in 185G, 1 Mr. Grigg's account 
in the old District Manual was mainly taken from this, and Dr. 
Rbortt'a likewise. In tike Madras Christian College Magazine for 
April and May 1892 the late Pandit S. M. Natfoa Sashi published 
a fuller account aud Mr. Thurston has added items of information 
in Museum Bulletin No. 1 of Vol. II and in his recent Ethnographic 
Notes in tSoaiham India. The following few lines are taken 
nhiefly from, these sources. 

The Badagas are split into six subdivisions; namely, Udaya 
(Wodeya), Haruva, Athikari, Kanaka,. Badaga and Toreya, of 
which the Toreyas arc the lowest and the servants of the others. 
The first two subdivisions and many of the third are vegetarians. 
The UdayaSj Aihiktiris and Kanakas are Idngayats and the others 
ordinary' Saivitea. The tXdayas claim, and are admitted, to be 
superior to all the rest. Their name was, and still is, used as 

* The triUs inhibiting the Neihjhemj IIi!h\ fiom the rcmgli notes of a 
Uerman Misfncmary, Madras, ISSfi. 



THE PEOPLE, 131 

a title by the aristocracy of Mysore, and they do not intermarry CHAP. Ill, 
with any of the other subdivisions but act as their priests, pRiscim, 
The Haruvas come next in the social scale. They wear the „, ii f,!' s ' 
Brahmanical thread and. are also priests ; and it lias "been 
conjectured that at tlio time of the original migration of the 
.Badagas they were Brahmans who accompanied them. 

The rites and ceremonies of the caste may best be understood 
by tracing the in as they affect the individual from his birth to 
his death. When a boy is about nine years old lie is formally 
initiated into the my stories of milking, and thereafter may 
enter the milk- room already- mentioned. The ritual consists in 
Iris milking a cow, pouring some of tlie milk into the household 
vessels, sprinkling some more over Ins relations' faces, and 
placing- the rest in tlie milk-room. 

About his thirteenth year, if he is of one of the Ling-ay at 
subdivisions, he is solemnly invested with a lingamby an Udaya. 
Complicated rites — including the lighting of a sacred fire, the 
pouring uf much milk and praises of, and invocations to, Siva — 
accompany the ceremony, and that night tlie bo\ *s parents give 
n, big dinner to their friends. 

Girl-babies may be bespoken as brides ae soon as they are 
born on payment of a fee of Es. 10, which i'ee may not be 
increased however beautiful and desirable beyond the ordinary 
they may grow up to be. When a girl attains puberty she is 
kept in a special hut, to be found in every Badaga village, till 
the next full-moon day. While she is there the various families 
in the village send flour to the hut and nil the village maidens 
meet Uiere and cook it and muss together. On the fall-moon, 
day tire girl returns to her home, is given a now cloth and sits 
outside the house until the moon vises. Then she is led up to 
the house by five aged women and. greeted on the threshold 
by her waiting mother, who blesses her in a set form of words 
(wishing her a homo of her own, a good husband and a strong 
son) and gives her a dish of food. Of this she eats a little and 
the rest she takes round to every house in. the village, the 
senior matron in each of them pronouncing- the same blessing 
upon her and inviting 3ier to eat a little of the food in the dish. 
A day or two afterwards her forehead Is tattooed with the 
marks which proclaim to all and sundry that she U of marriage- 
able age and open to an offer. 

Except in the Udaya subdivision,, where the parents arrange 
the marriages after the Continental fashion, the Badaga young 
men and maidens are allowed to choose their own partners fox 



182 



THE KILGX1I3S. 



CHAP, III. 
Principal 

Castes* 



life and even to make trial of one another's qualities before 
entering irrevocably "upon matrimony. The suitor goes to his 
iimamorata's parents, makes them a few presents, and is then 
invited to pass a few days with the girl The couple treat one 
another as husband and wife during the period or! probation 
and no stigma attaches to either if at the end oil that time they 
decide that they are not suited to oue another. Cases have 
however occurred (Captain Harkness' book quotes one) in which 
the young Lotharios of the caste havo "taken an undue advantage 
of the possibilities of this odd system. 

The marriage ceremonies are quite simple: they take place 
in the bridegroom's house and consist chiefly in the gu-] going 
to fetch water (as a sign that she has entered upon her household 
duties) and making salaams to the members of the bridegroom's 
family, and in the playing of much music by tho ICotas and the 
consumption of a big supper at the end o£ thp <\&y. A cloth-fee is 
paid for the girl and in addition a bride-price which varies with 
her qualifications as a field-labourer and runs up to as much 
as Ea. 200. 

Until tho woman becomes pregnant separations are permitted 
without trouble or scandal us long as those two sums are 
returned, and thus the marriage has a further psriod of pro- 
bation. But when a woman becomes pregnant a solemn 
ceremony is performed in the seventh month (compare the bow- 
giving riLo among the Tddas) which fixes tho paternity of the 
child and after which the couple can only separate after a 
regular divoroe'kas been granted by a council of the village 
elders. The ceremony consists in the husband tying round the 
wife's neck a string with the marriage badge attached, and, it is 
done in the presence of all tho relations and to the inevitable 
accompaniment of ICota music 

Divorces are common, and no stigma- attaches to a woman 
who divorces a husband or two before she settles down con- 
tentedly. The children goto the husband. These probationary 
marriages and easy divorces have led to tho morality of the 
Badaga women being slightingly referred to; but any laxity 
with men outside the caste- is severely punished — excommuni- 
cation being the sentence. 

The funerals of the Badagas (like those of the Todas) are 
more complicated than any other of their domestic ceremonies. 
When any one is sick unto death and recovery is hopeless he or 
she is given a small gold oom*—a Yiraraya fanam worth four annas 



THE PEOPLE. 



133 



— io swallow. As soon as death endues, a man of theToreya sub- 
division is sent round to tlie neighbouring villages to announce 
the fact. On reaching any of them lie removes Iris turban and 
then tells his tidings. 

On tlio day of: the funeral the corpse is carried on a, cot to 
an open space, a buffalo is Jed thrice round it and the hand of 
the dead is raised and placed upon the animal's horns. This 
again resembles the Tocla ceremony and a further likeness thereto 
is sometiiues provided by the pursuit and forcible capture of a 
buffalo, which is then dragged up to the corpse. A funeral car 
is constructed (which in the case of the wealthy is an elaborate 
erection of several storeys decked with cloths) 1 and on this is 
placed the body, dressed in its garments, covered with a new 
cloth, and with a couple of silver coins stuck on its forehead. 
The relations wail and lament around the body, salute it, and then 
dance round the car to the accompaniment of Ivota music, the men 
dressed in gaudy petticoats of a special kind and smart turbans. 
The Kota who did smith's work for the deceased while he was 
yet alive brings an iron sickle with imitation buffalo horns on 
the tip of it, and this, 'with a hatchet, a flute and a walking-stick 
is placed on the car. The car is next taken to the burning-ground, 
stripped of its hangings and hacked to pieces; tho widow takes 
her last leave of her husband, depositing some of her jewels on 
tho cot ; and then an elder of the tribe stands at the head of 
the corpse and chants thrice a long litany reciting all the sins 
that the deceased might have committed and declaring that the 
weight of all of them is transferred to a scape-calf which he 
names. Nowadays no calf is actually produced, but thirty-five 
years ago (according to Mr. C. E. Cover's account) the animal 
was brought up and as each sin was enumerated the elder laid 
his hand upon it in token that the blame was transferred to it, 
and at the end the animal was let loose like { he Biblical scape- 
goat of the Jews. Messrs. Thurston, Metz and Natesa Sastri 
all give examples of these litanies. Parts of one of them run as 
follows :-— 

This is tho death of Audi. 

In his memory the calf of tho cow Belle has been set free. 

^romthis world to the other 

He goes in a car. 

Everything the man did in this world, 

All the sins committed by the ancestors, 



PitiNcnur, 
, Castes. 



Voiles. 



1 A piufeuvc o£ one forms tie frontispiece to Mr. Tluirs ton's* mthnographit 



134 THE JMLQIXia. 

CHAP. IIT. All the sins committed by his forefathers, 

Piiikcipal All the sins committed by his parents, 

G f!!! s ' && tllQ sins committed by himself— 

Shifting the boundary line, 

Telling lies. 

Troubling the poor and cripples, 

Being jealous of the good crops of others, 

Using a calf set free at a funeral, 

Carrying' tales to the higher authorities, 

.Killing snakes and cows, 

Showing a -wrong path, 
[and so on throng]: a long - catalogue of many other sins]. 

Though there be three hundred snob sins. 
Let them all go with the calf sot free to-day. 
May the sins he completely removed ! 

Holding the feet of the calf sot free to-day, 
May lie roach the abode of Siva ! 

After more rites, the body is then burnt or buried. Next day 
milk is poured on the grave, or, if the body was burnt, a few of 
the bones are collected and reverently placed in a pit which every 
hamlet keeps for this purpose. 

The ceremonies atTJdayR funerals differ in several particulars 
and the dead of this subdivision, are always buried (like strict 
Linguyats elsewhere) in a sitting posture. 

At long intervals a ceremouy called manavalai is held in 
memory of the dead. A gorgeous many-storeyed funeral ear is 
made and on the lowest tier of this is placed a cot on which are 
pat the ear-rings of: all those who have died since the ceremony 
was last performed , A dance to TCdta mnsin takes place round 
the car, the performers being dressed in white petticoats and gaudy 
jackets, and at length the cot w taken to the cremation -ground 
and burn!-. 

The religions "beliefs of the Badagas are very catholic, In 
addition to Siva in his forms Mahal ingasva mi, Mahadesvara, etc., 
they worship Vishnu as Bangasvami on the Bangasvaim Peak 
referred to on p. 840 and at the big Karairaadai temple near Mettu- 
palaiyam : Gran gamma, the goddess of water ; several other minor 
deities ; and. a number of deified ancestors like the ICarairaya 
referred to in the account of Kotagiri on p. 838. The moat popu- 
lar of the latter aro Iletti (Hettamma), a woman who committed 
sati at the death of her husband, and Hiriya (or Hmodija) the 



Ca&tes. 



THE TIOPLU. 135 

husband. There are many shrines to Hetti, and at these fire- CHAP, III, 
walking festivals are common. Those at Melur and Den&d are Frixoipa- 
shortly referred to in. the accounts of those places in Chapter XV 
"belowj whence it wiLl he seen th.at the ceremonies are agricultural 
in their essence and are connected with tlie beginning of the culti- 
vation season and the prosperity o£ the crops. A Kummba is 
sent for and paid to plough the first furrow and scatter the first 
seeds, the idea being thai all this tribe are sorcerers who can 
avert all owl if they choose. Sometimes the shrines to deified 
ancestors are placed near the sculptured cromlechs which are 
common on the plateau. Other facts connecting tho Badagas 
with these monuments have been mentioned on p. 100 above. 

The Badag-as are very fond of music and song. ( Their tunes 
are quaint and original and, when heard from a distance, have an 
uncultured sweetness about them in keeping with the soft colour- 
ing nnd wild beauty of the scenery of the land which, is their 
home.' They have a great repertoire of ballads handed down 
from their forefathers. 1 Mr. Meta collected many of these and it 
is a pity that he never published them, for, like the similar Toda 
chants, they would probably be found to contain grains of his- 
torical matter which would tlrrow more light than is at present 
available upon the migrations and original home of the caste. 

The Kotas 2 arc the musicians and artisans of the hills and are ' 
also farmers of considerable skill. They reside in six villages 
{called Kota-keris or ' Kota streets ') on the plateau and a seventh 
near Gficlalur (the people of which last differ but little from their 
brethren nn the hills) which are big and untidy collections of 
thatched (rarely tiled) huts each, of which has the usual ■verandah 
in front of it. The pillars of this are sometimes of stone and not 
infrequently rudely carved by craftsmen from the plains The 
Ktftas are of a darker complexion than the Badagas, and very 
dirty in their persons. The men and women dress in. filthy cloths 
that may once have been white, which they tie much like the 
Tamils of tho plains. The men may be recognized at a glance hy 
their fashion of wearing their long straight hair, which they part 
in the middle and tie in a bunch behind. 

Though intelligent: and hardworking, the Kotas are held to 
be the lowest in. tho social scale of all the communities on tho 

1 Three of these are qnoto'l in Mr. C. K. Govor's 3?o]& Songs of Southern Indin 
(Iliggmbotham, Msidr/ts) ami Mr, Grig-g gives an cxfimjile in the original Ihsjinc/ 
Manual ; bnt these are too lang to quote hove. 

s fuller particulars will he fount! in Sletz, ByeaW Primitive Tnbes awi 
Motm-mmts, Dr. SViortt's book, and Mr. Thurston's detailed account in fflatyat 
Museum Bulletin So, 4 (1806), 



Casts*. 



136 THE KILOIRIS. 

hills because they eat carrion — even when in an advanced 
ParaoiPiL state of decomposition. Meta says that they justify the habit by 
declaring- that when their god Kamataraya made the Todas, 
Kurumbas and Kotas out of three drops of his perspiration ho 
permitted the first to cat milk and batter, the second meat, and 
the third carrion. They never look so sleek, JMetz continues, as 
when there is murrain among the Toda buffaloes; and their 
unpleasant die* certainly agrees with them, as they aro a sturdy 
community. They lire also overfond of strong waters and of opium. 

"Whence they originally came there is little to show. Dr. 
Caldwell thought their language was ' an old and very rude 
dialect ol Canarese.' Their own legends say that they once lived 
on a hill in Mysore called. KoIUmalai, whence they moved to the 
Nilgiris. They now act as musicians and artisans to the other 
Mil people, the men being goldsmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters, 
leather-workers and so forth, and the women making pots on a rude 
kind of potter's wheel. For these services they are paid 'by the 
other tribes with, doles of grain and the bodies of dead cattle and 
buffaloes. They keep cattle, but never milk them, Like the 
Badagas, they pay the Todas the periodical contribution of grain 
called gihhi. 

They are divided into three Icerh or streets ; namely, upper, 
lower and middle, the people of each of which are forbidden to 
marry among themselves. 

Marriages are arranged by the parents, and a betrothal is 
signified by the boy's going to the house of the girl selected for 
Mm, making obeisance to her parents, and presenting them with 
a four-anna bit. The wedding ceremony is of the simplest, the 
lad merely taking the maid to his house (after paying the bride- 
price) and providing a feast for the relations. A man does not 
generally marry a second wife unless the first is childless. 
Divorce is allowed for incompatibility of temper, drunkenness, 
immorality or laziness on the part of the wife, and, as among the 
Badagas.) is granted by a village council of elders. Cases of 
difficulty relating to this ttnd other matters are referred to n 
general council of the elders of the seven villages. 

"When a woman is going to have a baby she retires to a hut 
set aside for the purpose which is divided into two rooms—one 
serving as a maternity hospital and the- other as a dwelling for 
women during their seasons. There she remains until the full 
moon after the child is born, when she moves for a space to 
another special hut. When she may at length return home the 



Castek, 



THE PEOPLE. .187 

relatives arc feasted and tho baby is named by the head of the 
village. First -"born pons arc always called Komuttan after the Phincjpal 
god Ka'matara'ya referred to later; and a common name for girls 
is Madi, one of the names of that deity's spouse. 

When, a person is at the point of death the same gold fanam 
as the Badagas use is placed in his or her month. The funeral 
ceremonies also closely resemble those of the Badagas. After 
death the corpse is laid on its hack with its thumbs tied together 
across its chest, and the relations come and salute it. A wooden 
oar decorated with cloths is placed in front of the dead man's 
house and while the relations mourn the other Kotas dance. A 
buffalo is then killed and its flesh distributed. Then the corpse, 
gorgeously arrayed and with coins gummed to its forehead, is 
placed oil the lowest storey of the car, and near it are put iron 
implements, tobacco^ and rice and other ylotuals. The dancing 1 
and mourning (and also a great deal of drinking) proceed for 
many hours. At length the car and the cot are carried off to the 
funeral-place, and there another buffalo is slain and its body is 
taken to the corpse, which is made to salute it with the right 
hand. The deceased's widow is nest brought up, stripped of her 
jewellery and made to perform her last obeisance to her lord. 
The corpse and car are then carried on to the burning-ground, 
where the latter is quickly demolished and the former placed, 
upon the pyre. 

The next day the smouldering ashes are extinguished with 
water, collected, and buried in a pic, the spot being marked with 
stones. 

In December a ceremony resembling the l dry funeral ' of the 
Todag described below is performed. Eight days before it, a 
dance takes place in front of the houses in. which deaths have 
occurred during the year. On the appointed date the relatives 
of the dead bring buffalo skulls wrapped in cloths, put them on 
a cot and do obeisance to them by touching them with their fore- 
heads. These are nest carried off to the funeral ground and 
there a buffalo is killed for every death which is being commemo- 
rated and the skulls are burned with rice, tobacco and the other 
articles which accompanied the corpse at the real funeral, and 
also with a long pole decorated with cowries and similar to that 
used by the Todas in their funeral rites. Water is eventually 
poured over the ashes and the "whole party remains there all 
alight. A dance and feast nest morniug conclude the ceremony. 

The Kolas' chief god is the Kamataraya already mentioned, 
and- his priesthood consists of hereditary e devadis ' and of pujarih 
18 



188 



T-R¥, HILGIRIS. 



CHAP. III. 

Principal 

Castes. 



chosen by them. Neither of these are distinguished "by any parti- 
cular dress, and they marry and subsist just like any others of the 
tribe. Karaataraya ; s consort is named Kalikai, and every "Kota 
■village boasts a temple to each of them in which they are repre- 
sented by a thin silver plate. An annual festival in their honour 
is held to induce them to grant the IC6tas all prosperity. It 
begins on the first Monday after the ■! anuary new moon and lasts 
for about a fortnight. This period is treated as a general holiday 
and is declared to be a scene of continuous licentiousness, indecent 
dancing taking place between men and women. The chief 
Badagas of the neighbourhood, says Metss, are required to attend 
this ; and any refusal to do so would be avenged by the K6tas 
boycotting them and refusing to work for them. Items in the 
ceremonies include keeping a fire burning the whole time, re- 
roofing the temples with bamboos, etc., offering food to the god, 
and an elaborate dance in which the men, dressed up in special 
and gaudy petticoats, jackets, turbans, etc. , take the leading roles. 
A party also goes out with bows and arrows to try and kill some 
kind of game, and on their return a fire is made by friction, the 
devidi heats a bit of iron in this and the pujari makes a pretence 
of hammering it out. 

Of the three tribes which are practically peculiar to the 
Nilgiris (the Badagas, Ivotas and Todas) the third has attracted 
far more attention than the others. The Tddas are a purely 
pastoral people, who live on the produce of their herds of huge 
buffaloes (see p. 28) and gifts of grain from the other tribes 
(p. 270) ; claim to be the original inhabitant of the hills and lords 
of the soil (p. 270) ; dwell in lazy, Arcadian fashion in little 
scattered groups of quaint waggon-roofed huts, always most 
picturesquely situated ; are much taller and fairer than the general 
run. of the inhabitants of South India ; in dress, appearance and 
language differ widely from their neighbours ; have attractively 
dignified and fearless manners when conversing with "Europeans j 
and practise unusual customs, such as polyandry) infanticide and 
buffalo sacrifices at their funerals. 

These and other attributes resulted in their arousing deep 
interest in the early European visitors to the hills, and many 
enthusiasts rushed into print with accounts of them. Some 
declared their Bomaa noses and Sowing robes to be sure indica- 
tions that they were the survivals of a Roman colony ; others 
adduced their .Jewish oast of countenance as proof that they were 
the remnants of the lost tribes of the Hebrews ; and one gentle- 



THE PE0P1B. 



139 



Castes. 



m&o. l set himself to demonstrate that they were a relic of the ohaF. Hi. 
ancient Scythian invaders who, driven from place to place "by the Principal 
hostility of the dwellers in the plains, had at length taken refuge 
on this plateau. A caustic contemporary criticism of this last 
theorist, which applies equally to several of his fellows, said: — 

' He has treated the subject with remarkable acuteness and dis- 
played much curious antiquarian lore ■ by systematically magnifying 
every mote of resemblance, and by pertinaciously neglecting- or 
despising every beam of dissimilitude, together with a little o£ the 
freedom of assertion allowed to system-spinners, he has succeeded in 
erecting a noble edifice, -which lacks nothing but a foundation.' 

The proximity of the Todas to a favourite hill-station amidst 
ideal surroundings for ethnographic enquiry has continued to 
keep alive the extraordinary interest they awakened from the 
first, and the literature regarding them is now extensive. 2 It 
will suffice to give here an outline of their characteristics and 
ways. 

They are tall (the average height of the men being 5 ft. 7 in. 
and of the women 5 ft. 1 in.), well-proportioned, dolichocephalic 
and fairer than the people of the plains. The men are extremely 
hirsute and the women wear long side-looks which they ourl with 
great care on a round stick and smear with butter. The men 
are strong, agile, untiring, intelligent, possessed of an ' absolute 
belief in their own superiority over the surrounding races/ grave 
and dignified, and yet cheerful and well-disposed. The women 
are far less intelligent, often handsome and sometimes of frail 
morals. The Todas live in little hamlets which they style madb- 
or marths, but which Europeans generally call by the Badaga 
name of mantis. Those consist of only four or five dwelling- 
huts, a larger one forming the dairy, and a buffalo-pen, and 
are usually prettily situated and near a shola and a stream. 
The huts are quaint erections which may be likened to the 
half of a barrel cut through its longer axis. Wide eaves 
overshadow the front of them, and on this side is the only 
doo?j an entrance so sua all and, low that it is necessary to go 

3 Captain H. Oongreve of fclio Madras Artillery ; sjee Iris article irt Jf.J X,S., 
X1Y (1847), 77-146, originally contributed in 1844-45 to the Madras Spectator. 

~ Tlie more important of these books are Captain H. Karkneaa' Diincriftion 
of a singular aboriginal race inhabiting the summit of the Nfalgherry hills (London, 
1832); llev. 3T. Metis' The Tribes mhaUHng the Neilgherry Mils I Madras, 1856); 
Colonel W. E. Marshall's A Phrenologist among the Todas (London, 1873) j Mr. '!S. 
Thurston's Madras Mueewn Bulletins, i, 141 and iv, 1; and Mr. W. H. H, 
Savers' I'seenfc exhaustive work. The I'odas (Maomillan, 1906). This last, upon 
wbiuh the following account is almost exclusively based, contains a complete 
bibliography of the subject, enumerating 4>2 papers and books. 



140 



THE NILGHtlS. 



PBINCIPAI, 
CASTES, 



down on all fours to get through it. This is flanked without on 
either side by a sort of earthen bench. Inside, two raised plat- 
forms, for sleeping on, flank either side of the door and in the mud 
floor is a hole for pounding grain. The house is surrounded by a 
wall containing- only one opening, which is purposely made too 
small to admit a buffalo. Both men and women wear an upper 
mantle of double cloth called the putkuli, white with red and blue 
embroidered borders and woven near Mettupalaiyam, which is 
thrown right round the shoulders ; and a similar loin-cloth of the 
usual out. The men have a languti as well. Between the folds 
of the double putkuli is a capacious pocket, Neither ses use any 
covering' for the head. The women are generally tattooed. 

The T6das are divided into two endoganious subdivisions 
called Tarthar and Teivali, which Mr. Rivera believes to have beon 
derived from two different tribes which reached the hills at different 
periods, and which are ag-ain split into certain exogamous septs, 
or clans, each of which inhabits certain definite mands. Tliey 
never cultivate, nor do any work except tending their buffaloes 
(the only animals they rear) and mating butter and ghi from 
the milk these beasts provide. In recent years one or two of 
them have obtained work on coffee plantations ; but it is said 
that neither they nor their employers were pleased with the result 
of the experiment. On rising in the morning the men salute the 
sun wifch a quaint gesture, putting the thumb to the nose and 
spreading out the fingers in a manner similar to the English 
school-boy J s token of derision, let the buffaloes out of the pen, 
churn the previous night's milk, milk the buffaloes, and then drive 
the herd to the grazing ground and laze away the rest of the 
day there until it is time to come home to the evening meal, 
milk the buffaloes again, churn more butter, salute the lamp as 
the sun was saluted, and retire to rest. The women are not 
allowed to have anything to do with the milking or churning, 
but confine themselves to ordinary household duties. 

It is not to be wondered at that milk and its products, the chief 
food of the tribe, should have come gradually to be regarded 
with a solicitude approaching to reverence, and nowadays the 
operations in the dairy are unique in this part of India in the 
manuer in which they form the basis of the greater part of the 
religious ritual of the Todas. Certain of the buffaloes are saered 
animals and are attended by priests (pdfol) specially set apart who 
1 are aided by a servant {"ka'Umokh) who among other duties acts 
as intermediary between them and the other Todas ; the dairies 
in which the holy milk is churned are in effect the temples of, the 



THE HB0P1B. 



141 



tribe ; and the operations therein have become a religious cere- 
monial and are accompanied by several set forms of prayer for the 

health of the buffaloes and abundance of grazing 1 and water. 

Among the Tarthars, the dairies are of several grades of 
sanctity. In some a sacred bell (perhaps a symbol of the holy 
buffaloes which "wear such ornaments) is kept; five (called ii 
or, by the Badagas, birieri) are far removed from any mand and 
appropriated to special herds of special sacredness ; most of 
them are like an ordinary Toda house, but larger ; while three 
or four are circular with a conical roof, the best known among 
which is that near the top of the Sigur gMt which is called by the 
Europeans of Ootacamund ' the Toda cathedral.' 

Generally, the dairies are divided, into an outer and an inner 
room, in the former of which the dairyman-priest (pilot) usually 
sleeps and in the latter (which he alone may enter) the churning 
and so on are performed. In this latter are "kept the various vessels 
and chums ; and those which are used to carry the finished product 
to ordinary mortals are kept rigorously apart from those which 
have direct connection with the sacred buffaloes and their milk. A 
special stream or a special part of the common stream is carefully 
reserved- for use in the dairy, and when the priest is in the build- 
ing he must wear only a languti. On all occasions, too, Ms 
mantle is of a special kind, generally black or grey. If he sleeps 
in the ordinary huts he must touch nothing but the floor and 
the sleeping-bench, on pain of losing his office. At the higher- 
grade dairies the ritual accompanying the churning is most ela- 
borate and the priests may not go to the bazaar and are restricted 
in their intercourse with women. Women are strict] y forbidden to 
approach even the ordinary dairies. The priest at a ii dairy, called 
palol, has to be altogether celibate; may not be approached by any 
ordinary r JMda except on. Mondays and Thursdays, and loses his 
office if he or his dairy is touched by any imconseorated person. 
His recompense is the income he makes from the sale of the ghi. 
There is evidence that the rigour of: this elaborate ceremonial is 
weakening and that the number of the highest grade of dairy, 
the ii, is less than it was ia even comparatively recent times. 

The various classes of priests at the dairies are required to 
undergo certain ordination ceremonies before they assume charge 
of their sacred task, and the complexity of these varies directly 
with the holiness of the dairy concerned. The essential feature 
of them all is purification by washing with and drinking the 
water of the sacred stream which is set apart for the use of the 
dairy ; the bark and leaves of the sacred iudr tree {MeUo&ma 



CHAP. III. 

Principal 
Oastbb. 



142 $K38 KltaiBIS. 

CHAP. III. pungms or WighiM, which two closely resemble one another) and 
Peojuipal the leaves of the plant muti (Bubus elUpthua) play an important 
°"™- part in them, as in much other Toda ceremonial ; the numbers 
three and seven frequently occur in the ritual j in certain 
cases the priest is requi red to sleep one or more nights almost 
naked in a sh6la; fire required during the ceremonies must be 
made by friction ; and the final stage of induction is marked by 
the priest touching some sacred object of: the dairy. The details 
are given in full in Mr. Rivers' book. 

Migrations of the sacred herds from one part of the hills to 
another are periodically necessary in order to obtain sufficient 
grazing. From December to March, for example, when the 
grass round Qotacanmnd and Paikara is dried up 5 most "of the 
buffaloes are driven out to the Kundahs, where the heavier 
rainfall keeps the pasture green for a longer period. Even these 
migrations are attended with much elaborate ritual, special 
attention being paid to the importance of keeping rigorously 
apart the two sets of dairy vessels already referred to as being 
respectively sacred and profane. 

The T6das possess but vague ideas about the various deities 
to whom they pay reverence. Their typical deity c lives much 
the same kind o£ life as the mortal Toda, having his dairies and 
his buffaloes. The sacred dairies and the sacred buffaloes are 
still regarded as being in some measure the property of the gods, 
and the dairymen are looked upon as their priests/ The gods 
mostly inhabit the tops of the highest hills, but are never seen by 
mortals. Bach clan of the tribe has a deity specially connected 
with it, who is believed to have been its rulei* in the past ages 
when gods and men lived together on the plateau. 

Two deities, however, stand out pre-eminent among the rest ; 
namely, a god called On and a goddess (his sister) kuown as 
Teikirzi. On was the son of Pithi, the earliest immortal of wLom 
tradition speaks. He created men and buffaloes and became the 
ruler of Amnordr, the world of the dead, where he now lives. 
He and his wife went one day to the top of the Kundahs and he 
laid an iron bar right across them. Standing at one end of this. 
he brought forth 1,600 buffaloes from the earth, and his wife at 
the other end produced 1,800. The first lot were the progenitors 
of the sacred herds and the second the first parents of the ordi- 
nary buffaloes. Holding on to the tail of the last of the former, 
came out of the earth a man, wlio was the first Toda. On took 
one of bis ribs and made from it the first T6da woman. On's 
son was accidentally drowned, and in his grief On left the plateau 



Castes. 



THE FEOPIS. 148 

and went to the world of fclie dead to be with his child. His sister OEAP. Ill, 
Teikim then took Ms place as ruler over the Todas. It was she Prikoiris 
who originated most of their rites and ceremonies, and who 
divided them and their buffaloes into the clans and classes which 
still exist. 

Some of the gods appear to be deifications of mortal men, and 
their doings are recounted in numerous legends connected directly 
with several of the peaks and lakes of the hills } among them 
Hullkal Brag near Ooonoor and the Marlimand reservoir at 
Ootacanrund. One of the best-known of these deifications is 
Kwoten. One day when this man was drinking from a stream 
which rises in the Kimdahs he saw in tho water a golden hair of 
great length and beauty. He went up the stream to discover 
the womau to whom it belonged , found her, and fell in love with 
her. But she was the goddess Terkosk, and his presumption 
met its punishment : he was soon after spirited away for ever with 
all his buffaloes, only his silver ring (which is still preserved) 
remaining behind on tho sambhar skin on which he had been 
sleeping. 

In addition to their own gods, the Todas also pay reverence 
to the Hindu deities of certain well-known temples in the plains — 
especially Nanjandisvara of Nanjangod; but this worship is 
usually accorded only on special occasions for special purposes — 
notably by childless couples desirous of offspring. 

Besides the priests at the dairies, and quite separate from 
them, the T6das have prophets, magicians and medicine-men. 
The prophets, or diviners, are supposed to be each inspired by 
certain definite gods and they utter their prophecies (usually 
working in pairs) during a fit of frenzy and in a language not 
their own, such as Malayalam. They are consulted in eases of 
sickness among the Todas or their buffaloes or in the event of 
other difficulties or misadventures. 

The power of sorcery is declared to belong to certain families 
and to be inherited. The average Toda knows little of it, and is 
most ansious to discover more. The diviners frequently declare 
that such and such a misfortune is due to the magic practised by 
such and such a known sorcerer, and the latter is then, propitiated 
by the victim or his relations and induced by doueeurs to remove 
the spell. One method of laying a spell upon an enemy is to take 
some human hair, tie five stones up in it, wrap them in a bit 
of cloth, pronounce a- curse over this bundle., and hide it secretly 
in the thatch of the enemy's house. Sometimes a bone or a lime 
is buried in a shola near the intended victim's mand. T<)da 



144 



THE NILOXBIS, 



CHAP, III. 

HASTES. 



sorcerers are dreaded by the Badagas as much as hj their fellow 
tribesmen., and this is believed to be one reason why the Badagas 
still continue to pay the Todas the gudit or tribute of grain 
referred to on p. 270 below. About ten years ago the Badagas 
of Nanjanad killed a T6da sorcerer because they believed him to 
have caused the d«atb of one of their children. On the other 
hand the Todaw are excessively afraid of the necromancy of the 
Kurunibas. 

Belief in the evil eye and in the "bad effects of words of praise 
is as prevalent as in other castes, and to remove the malign 
influence certain definite methods are practised by the medicine- 
men. Stomach-ache so caused is cured, for example; by rubbing 
the affected spot, putting salt on a corner of the patient's mantle, 
stroking this with a thorn of Solarium indicum and then throwing 
the thorn and some of the salt into fire to the accompaniment 
of incantations. Again, if a buffalo is lost she can be preserved 
from harm until she is found by taking three stones secretly at 
night to the front of the dairy or hut to which she belongs, 
uttering a spell over them and hiding them in the thatch. 

The higher powers are periodically propitiated "by the Todas 
in several ways. Sacrifices of buffalo calves are made at least 
once annually at each raand and thrice annually at each tL Thesej 
again, are accompanied "by much minute ceremonial, which is 
described by Mr. Rivers in detail. The -flesh is eaten. The 
T6das also eat sambhar meat when they get the chance. Strong 
drink is not forbidden them and on '" shandy ' days at Gotaca,mund 
it is not uncomnioii to see one or two backsliders considerably 
the worse for its effects. Annually, also, in October fires are 
lighted by the pdloh and their kaUmokhs } to the accompaniment 
of prayers for the increase of honey and fruit, at the foot of 
certain high hills. Sin-offerings, and offerings to remove misfor- 
tune are also made, a buffalo being the victim ; offences against the 
ritual of the dairy require somewhat similar expiation ; and ills 
due to violence done to general religions rules are removed by 
giving, with complex ceremonial, a buffalo calf., a piece of cloth, 
or a silver ring to the members of the two Icudrs, or divisions into 
which, most of the clans are split. The penalties appropriate to 
each of these offences are usually prescribed by the diviners. 

At or about the fifth month of a woman's pregnancy she is 
required to live in a rude hut at some little distance from the 
mand and (after several ceremonies) to burn herself in two places 
on each wrist with a lighted roll of thread. Sbe stays a month in 
the hut and is then purified by drinking milk (amid more ritual) 
and allowed to come back again to her home. 



THE PEOPLE. 



145 



About tlie seventh month of her pregnancy, the woman has 
to perform the bow and arrow ceremony. She and whichever of 
her husbands is selected as the father of the child go into a shola 
near the mand ; he cuts a triangular niche in a Eugenia Arnot- 
tiana tree and places a lighted lamp in it ; the pair make a bow 
of Sopkora glauca wood, fit it with an arrow of Andropogon 
schwncmihus grass and return, to the tree where the lamp stands *, 
after mutual salutations between them and their relations, the 
husband hands the woman the bow ; and she holds it and gazes at 
the light for an hour or until it goes out. The pair then cock 
and eat food and they and all the inhabitants of the mand pass 
the night) in the shola. This ceremony is only performed at a 
first pregnancy or when it is desired to appoint another husband 
as the father of the woman's children. The man who performs 
it with, the woman is regarded ever after as the father of her child. 
If a woman dies unmarried or childless, both the above cere- 
monies — the wrist-branding and the handing of the bow and arrow 
—are performed at her funeral. 

Three days after the child is born, the woman carries it to the 
same hut where the wrist- burning occurred (taking the greatest 
care to shelter herself and it from the influence of the star Keirt, 
which is near the sun, by turning her back to the sun) and there 
remains three weeks or a month. The cliild^s face may not be 
seen by any one for three months. At the end of that time it is 
uncovered, the child is named and its head is shaved. The ears 
are pierced some time later with much ceremony. 

The funeral rites of a Toda may be prolonged over nianv 
months. Soon after death the body is burnt, the ceremony being 
usually known to Europeans by its Badaga name of the c g-reen 
funeral ' ; after a varying interval a second ceremony, called the 
( dry funeral/ connected with certain relics of the deceased 
preserved from the other, is carried out ; and lastly on the next 
day the relics are burnt and the ashes buried within an dndram 
or circle of stones. The Tod as make no such secret of their 
funeral rites as of the ritual of their dairies, and even invite 
guests to them. All three stages have consequently been often 
described . 

At the green funeral, the corpse is carried, fully dressed., on a 
bier to the funeral place. All those present touch it with their 
foreheads and it is then put in. a rude hut constructed for the 
purpose. The women collect round this and mourn and lament 
in a quaint manner, sitting in pairs and pressing their foreheads 
together, while the men prepare the pyre. Subsequent ceremonies 
19 



CHAP. III. 

Principal 

Castes, 



Castes. 



146 THE NILGIBIS. 

CHAP. HI," differ somewhat with, the sex of the deceased. If he lie a man, 
Phikcipal earth is dug from the entrance of a buffalo peu and the near 
relatives throw thren handfnls of it into the pen and three over 
the corpse; if she be a woman, certain leaves are plucked and 
put in her right armlet. The earth-throwing is perhaps a 
survival of a distant period when the dead were buried instead of 
cremated. 

JSText two buffaloes, one of which (at a man's funeral) must 
belong to the sacred herds, arp pursued and caught and dragged 
by force to an, appointed place to be killed Formerly many 
more were slain, but Government intervened and limited the 
number. This capturing of the buffaloes is often an. exciting 
affair ; a herd is driven with loud shouts at top speed towards the 
place of the funeral by one lot of To das, so that they are fairly 
infuriated before they reach it, and then another lot dash out 
to meet them. To avoid the latter, the animals scatter and rush 
wildly about, and the Todas pursue them until they at length 
succeed in flinging themselves on to the horns of the two selected 
beasts and "bearing them clown to the ground by sheer force. At 
a Tarfchar funeral Teivali men catch them, and vice versa. The 
operation is critically watched, and reputations are made or 
marred by the degree of skill displayed. Now and again the men 
are considerably injured by the maddened animals, 

One of the captured buffaloes is next driven to the appointed 
place ; a bell is placed round its neck ; its back, head and. horns 
are rubbed with butter ; and. it is killed by a blow from the back 
of an axe. The corpse is then brought and placed near its head and 
the right hand, if the deceased was a man, is made to clasp one of 
the horns ; or, if the funeral is that of a woman, her feet are 
placed by the animal's head. The men present salute the buffalo 
by placing their foreheads on its horns. The second buffalo is 
slain in like manner and then all those present cluster round the 
dead pair and mourn in couples as before. The couples keep 
continually separating and choosing new partners of their grief ; 
ancl as eaeh does so the younger of the two salutes the elder in the 
orthodox Toda fashion, namely by bowing down before him and 
raising his feet one after the other so that they touch his (the 
younger's) forehead. ' At times the band of mourners would form 
a confused mass of struggling people, some crying forehead to 
forehead, others saluting" head to foot, while others would be 
struggling through the mass to seek partners with whom to 
mourn. 1 While all this is going on, a near relative of the 
deceased gives a cloth to those who have married into his family 
and the latters s wives place it oyer the corpse. 



THE PEOPLE. 147 

Next the "body is "borne on the "bier to the side of the pyre and "-CHAP. III. 
there supplied, with the various articles — food, ornaments, money Principal 
and tobacco — necessary for its use m the other world. Then the „ B , T „ Efll 

pyre is lighted by a woman (fire being made by friction if the 
deceased was a man), the body is lifted and swung three times 
over it, the articles of value just presented to it are removed and 
a lock of its hair is cut off. The corpse is next placed finally on 
the pyre, with (if the deceased was a man) some imitation wooden 
buffalo horns, and is burnt to ashes, the Kotas who have attended 
to make music and carry off the flesh of the dead buifaloes 
redoubling their discordant noise while this is going on. Finally 
a piece of the skull is sought out from the ashes and, with the 
lock of hair, is wrapped up in one of the mantles usually worn 
and is preserved as a relic for use at the dry funeral. Those 
who attend Teivah funerals are held to be polluted until the next 
new moon and are subject to numerous social disabilities in 
consequence. 

The ' dry funeral ' may 'be held over the relics of more than 
one person, "but Government allows only two buffaloes to "be 
sacrificed on each occasion. The relics of each person are placed 
in a separate hut ; the same mourning as at the green funeral, 
forehead to forehead, is practised ; earth is again thrown over the 
remains ; buffaloes are slain in the same manner ; and the relics 
are "brought and. placed near their heads, just as "before. Then 
the men dance in their characteristically solemn, clumsy fashion 
round the funeral hut, carrying round with them a long- pole of a 
special kind decorated with cowrie-shells ; food is distributed ; and 
most of those present return home. 

Near relatives, however, remain until the evening, and then a 
hole is dug near the entrance of the dzdmm, or circle of stones 
already mentioned, and the remains of the dead and certain 
objects to "be burnt with them (food, household utensils, etc.) are 
brought and placed near by amidst frantic wailing. A fire is 
lighted within the circle and. the remains are burnt, all those 
present mourning and crying, forehead to forehead, and the Kotas 
playing special funeral music. The ashes are swept into the hole 
already mentioned and covered with a, stono, a bell is rung three 
times round the spot, a new pot is broken on the stone, and the 
rites are over. 

During both green and dry funerals, laments in honour of the 
dead are sometimes sung or said, and some of the Todas have 
great reputations as composers of these. Still-born infants are 
buried, 'without ceremonies of any kind and in the case of children 
under two years of age both funerals are held on the same day. 



148 



THE KILOIBIS. 



OEAP. III. 

PBINCIPAXi 

Castes. 



The souls of dead Todas and of tlie 'buffaloes slain at their 
funerals go to the Amnordr already mentioned. Tins lies to tlie 
west and is below this world, 'but. is lighted by the same sun, each 
region being dark during- the time the other is light. The people 
of Amnordr live in much the same way as mortal Todas, having 
buffaloes and dairies, hut as they walk about they wear down 
their legs, and when they have worn them down as Jar as the 
knees, On, the ruler of Amnordr already referred to, sends them 
back to this world as other men. The dead travel to Amnordr 
by well-defined routes, which are different for the Tarthars and 
the Teivalis. They do not start until after the dry funeral and 
pass westwards towards the Kundahs across the Avalanche stream. 
At this, the paths of the two subdivisions diverge, but meet again 
beyond Avalanche hill at a certain stone. When the dead reach 
this they knock it and so lose all their love of this world j and 
further on is another stone, knocking on which rids them of all 
their diseases so that they are sound and vigorous when they reach 
Amnordr. Near Sispara they come to a river crossed by a bridge 
of thread, and those who have been bad Todas in this life fall 
from the bridge into the river among swarms of leeches. All, 
however, reach Amnordr at last. No Toda may on any account 
mention the name of a dead ancestor, and indeed the names of all 
the dead are taboo. 

Each clan observes a certain day of the week as a kind of 
Sabbath sacred to the mand and another as sacred to the dairy, and 
on these certain actions are forbidden. Women, for example, 
may not leave the mand, nor may money pass out of it. These 
prohibitions are often jesuiticaUy evaded, women who wish to 
leave quitting the mand that day before sunrise, returning to it at 
dawn, doing their house-work and then departing. Their absence 
at dawn is supposed to render them ceremonially absent during the 
day. Similarly money required on a sacred day may be buried 
near at hand the day before and employed on the morrow without- 
transgressing the law. 

The T6das are slowly increasing hi numbers, and the excess 
of males over females which has 
been always so noticeable among 
them is gradually declining. In 
the margin are given the figures 
for the last three censuses. In 
1901 special precautions were 
taken to ensure accuracy, a separate enumeration ol the tribe 
being taken in advance of the general census and 'before they had 



1881 

1891 
1901 



6?5 



Males to 
every 100 

females. 
1804 
135'9 
127-4 



£HE PBOPLE. 



149 



scattered, as asaal in the early part of the year, to the distant 
graaing-grounds on the ICundahs. There are two small rnands in 
the Wynaad, between Grhdalur and Devala. The houses in these 
a.re of the ordinary Wynaad pattern. The Todas in fehern say that 
their ancestors went to the lower country with the Nellialam Arasa 
and served as guards to the gates of his fort. They are still given 
an annual dole of grain "by the Arasa in recompense for the past 
services of their forebears. 

The slow growth of the tribe in the past was undoubtedly 
largely due to the practice of female infanticide. Girl babies seem 
to have been systematically put out of the way, some accounts say 
by placing them at the entrance of the buffalo-pens and leaving 
them to be trampled to death when the herd was released in the 
morning. This practice appears to have been brought to the 
notice of Mr. Sullivan in 1820, very soon after his first arrival on 
the hills, and he induced the Todas to agree to abandon it ; but in 
1856 the then Collector reported that it was again prevalent and 
applied for sanction to grant a bonus on girl babies produced 
before him. Mr. Rivers believes that it is even now practised to 
some extent. In later years, the immorality for which the Toda 
women residing near the hill-stations are notorious has also 
probably had some effect on their fertility. 

Toda children are often married when, only two or three years 
of age. The most suitable match for a boy is the daughter of his 
maternal uncle (the usual Dravidian rale, known elsewhere as 
menarikam) or of his paternal aunt. Betrothals are ratified by 
repeated periodical presents of cloths and the girl remains with 
her own people until she ia fifteen or sixteen. Shortly before she 
arrives at puberty a man of some clan other than her own is 
invited to the mand and sleeps a night with. hot*. It is a lasting 
disgrace to her if this is not done before she attains maturity. 
Engagements may be broken even at the last moment on payment 
of certain specified fines. 

Polyandry (nearly always o£ the ( fraternal ' type) is the rale, 
and in addition to her husbands a woman may also have recognized 
lovers. The Tarthars and Teivalis, as has already been said, may 
not intermarry., but a woman of either division may accept a man 
from the other as her lover, though the children of suoh unions 
differ from those bom in orthodox wedlock in belonging to the 
division of the mother, and not that of the father. Members of 
the same clan never intermarry. 

Though the decay of infanticide has increased the proportion 
of the women to the men, polyandry shows few signs of dying 



ohap. m. 

Prukcipa r. 



150 THE MIMHBrS. 

CHAF. III. out. It is often actually associated with polygamy, two 'brothers 

Paikcipal having two wives in common. Probably in time this will result 

° ASTE9 - in each of such brothers coining to regard one of the two 

women as his owiij and from thence there is but a small step to 

monogamy. 

The marriage tie has become very loose, wives being constantly 
transferred from one husband (or set of husbands) to another on 
payment of a certain number of buffaloes fixed by a pauchayat. 
In one case quoted by Mr. Elvers a woman was thus transferred 
no less than five limes. It has even become common for a man 
who takes a faDcy to another's "wife to endeavour to bribe the 
pauchayat to decide that she must go to him. Disputes have 
naturally resulted and Government have decided that unmarried 
Todas willing to sign the declaration prescribed in the Marriage 
Act III of 1872 may contract valid marriages governed, by the 
usual law and exempt from the operation of such an unnatural 
custom. 

A. man may divorce his wife if she is a fool or if she will not 
work; but not for adultery, which is hardly regarded as wrong- 
doing. Adultery with natives outside the caste is traditionally 
supposed to be common in the mauds which immediately adjoin 
the towns, but it is only fair to say that very few Toda children 
show any signs of mixed parentage. 

Descent of property among the Todas is in the male line, a _ 
person's father being held to be the man who presented his 
mother with the bow and arrow in the seventh month of. her 
pregnancy in the manner already described. Adoption is not 
practised. Daughters inherit nothing. A headman (monigar) 
is responsible for the assessment due tu Government, "but he is 
less important, socially, than the head of the tribal panch&yat. 

The Todas play but few games. In one of them one boy has 
to try to squeeze through a narrow tunnel made of two upright 
stones with another laid horizontally upon them before his 
opponent^ starting from some distance off, can roach him and 
touch his feet. A game for men consists in trying to lift to the 
shoulder a large circular stone. Near many niands the stones 
formerly used in this pastime may be seen s and as few Todas can 
now do more than just lift them off the ground the inference 
follows that the tribe has much degenerated in physical strength. 
Toda dancing is of the simplest description, the men merely 
joining arms in a circle and moving round with a sort of hop to 
the accompaniment of shouts of ha-hi-hdh. 



THE BiiOPLE. 1§I 

The language of the tribe is undoubtedly Dravidian, and the CHAP. III. 
best judges hare considered it to be more nearly allied to Tamil tlian Frincipax 
to a-ny other Bravidian tongue. This fact throws some liglit on tip Pastes. 
two difficult questions ■ Who are the Todas ''. "How do they come 
to be living on tlie Nilgiris ? No answer to these is afforded by 
the ancient records of the tribe, for they have none; nor by tlierr 
traditions, for these, as has been seen, declare that the first Tod a 
was miraculously created on the Hundahs. Mr. Hirers considers 
that the similarity of the customs of the Todas with those of 
Malabar points to their having migrated from that part of the 
conn try. For polyandry still survives in Malabar ; the sambandham 
form of marriage there has points of resemblance to the custom 
by which Toda women have recognized lovers ; in both areas the 
giving of a cloth is an. essential part of the marriage ceremony, 
new cloths are placed en the corpse at funerals, and certain wed- 
ding ceremonies are performed at the obsequies of a girl who has 
died unmarried. Again, the pole decked with cowries with which 
the Todas dance at their funerals should, they aver, be procured 
from the ICurumbas from Malabar, where alone suitable hinds 
grow; and perhaps the belief that the souls of the dead travel 
westwards enshrines some tradition of the original home of the 
tribe. Moreover IVfalayalara and Tamil are nearly allied and 
perhaps further research would show that it is with the former 
rather than the latter that the Toda tongue is most nearly con- 
nected ; T6da diviners, as has been seen, are declared to speak 
Malayalam when they are in their frenzies ; and such statistics of 
physical measurements as are available reveal, a certain resem- 
blance between the Todas and the Nayars and Nambtklris of 
filalabar. 

If, however, the Todas came from Malabar it mu«t have been 
at a very remote period, as their general manner of life is now 
wholly different from that of any Malabar caste. 

Of the people of the plateau there remain to be considered the ii-nka, 
ii'alas and the ICurumbas, two jungle-tribes which are also found 
in several other districts. 

The name Irula is supposed to be derived from the Tamil irul, 
' darkness ', which may refer either to the gloomy jungles in which 
they live or to their very swarthy complexions. The tribe lives 
chiefly on the eastern lower slopes in rude hamlets called motias 
formed of huts made of plaited bamboo plastered over with mud. 
They cultivate patches of dry grains (ragi, somai, tenai, dhall, maize 
and castor) and grow many plantains and some jack, lime, and. 
other fruit trees. In some places (round about Arakod, for 
example) they do not plough the land, but carry on shifting 



152 



THE EnLGIEIS. 



OHAP.m. 

Phiscipai- 

OAftTES. 



cultivation in patches of jungle wHcli they fell and burn. They 
also earn something by collecting forest produce, such as gums, 
dyes, etc. They have few dealings with the people of the plateau 
itself, "but frequently travel down to tho plains (especially to the 
Mettupalaiyam market) to dispose of their produce. They keep 
cows and, like the Badagas and T6das, prohibit their women 
from having anything to do with the milk. They pay do gtklu 
to the Todas. They have u headman called the pattakdran and a 
deputy styled Mlldran who preside at panch&yats. They are 
divided into seven exogamous groupSj the origin of which is not 
clearly known. The Irulas on the slopes of the Bbav&ni valley 
are sometimes called Huddumars and those round about Masini- 
gndi are known as Itasnbas or Kasuvas. All of them speak a 
corrupt form of Tamil. 

They are small in stature, very dark-skinned (though sometimes 
much fairer individuals are met with), broad-nosed, and so like 
the Kurunibas that they can with difficulty be told apart. The 
men sometimes shave their heads in the Tamil fashion and wear 
a kudumi, or top-knot. Tho women are generally tattooed on the 
forehead, wear their upper cloths stretched straight across their 
breasts and passed under their arras, like the Badaga -women, and 
their characteristic ornaments are a series of brass bangles on the 
forearms and a necklace made up of many strings of beads roughly 
twistod into a regular rope. The Irulas are as fond of dancing 
as the other people of the hills and have their own musicians. 

Early accounts of the tribe (such as Captain Harkness', 
written in 1832) represent them as sunk in poverty, dirt and 
wretchedness and subsisting from hand to mouth by primitive 
shifting cultivation and the collection of jungle produce. So poor 
were they that infanticide was common (the mothers being 
declared to bnry their infants alive) and so wild wpro their habits 
that fabulous stories of their relations with the animals oi the 
forests were recounted by other tribes— one of these (quoted by 
Buchanan) declaring that when an Irala woman was too busy to 
look after her babies she entrusted them to the care of the nearest 
tiger. 

.Nowadays work on the numerous tea and coffee plantations 
of the hills has broug'M them regular wages and raised their 
standard of comfort, and they are far less wild (and so less inter- 
esting) than they were. 

They worship Vishnu and are the priests at his rude shrine 
(p. 340) on Bangasvami Peak. They eat meat (though not 
beef) and any game they can catch, pig not excepted, A youth 



THE PEOFLR. 



153 



lias a vested right to the hand of his paternal aunt's daughter 
and can claim her "before the pancliAyat. His mother usually 
makes the proposal for her hand, and if it is accepted she goes 
with a party (which does not include the "bridegroom) to the girl's 
house with presents of food and the "bride-price. There they are 
feasted aad that night the bride is handed over with due arid 
quaint ceremony to her future husband's people. Marriage 
generally occurs after puberty ; the right to divorce is mutual ; 
widows may remarry. 

When an Irala dies, two Kurumbas who are hereditarily- 
attached to his village come there and one of them shaves the 
head of the other. The latter is fed and presented with 
a cloth, which he wraps round his shorn head. This odd ceremo- 
nial is supposed in some way or other to bring good luck to the 
departed. 1 Until the time fixed for the funeral, the corpse is kept 
inside the house, while the relations dance outside to an Irula hand. 
A funeral car something like that used "by the Badagas is made 
and afterwards demolished, and the corpse is carried off to the 
cemetery. Each village has its own cemetery and in this the dead 
are buried fully dressed and in a sitting posture with the legs 
crossed in tailor fashion. A lamp, knife and hatches are placed 
beside them and then the grave is filled in audits position marked 
with a- stone. As already mentioned (p. 101) the Jrulas and 
the Kurumbas used at one time to place a water- worn stone ia 
some cromlech every time one of their number died, and in some 
places they still place them in a shed at the cemetery, big ones 
being used in the case of grown-up people and little ones for 
children. Sometimes a family has its own family grave which 
is opened and used whenever any of the members die. A simple 
annual memorial service is held at the cemetery, food being taken 
there, a lamp lit and some puja performed. 

The Kurumbas, Kurubas or "Kurnmas of the district seem to 
be of at least three classes; namely, the Kurumbas proper who 
live in hamlets on the plateau ; the Ui Kurumbas round Nel- 
Halain ; and the Jen Kurumbas or Shola Nayakas who are 
numerous in the Wynaad and especially on the Mudumalai side 
of it. 

A powerful race called Kurumbas or Pallavas, about whom 
much has been conjectured but little is known, once held sway 
over much of South India but was overthrown about the ninth 
century A,D. by the Ohola dynasty of Tanjore. It is usually 

1 Mr, Thurston in Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. II, 2fo. 1. Other informa- 
tion about the Irulss is contained ia Breaks' and Sheet's books. 

SO 



CHAP, lit. 

PKINCIFAr, 

Castes. 



154 



THE NITiGIEIS. 



CHAP. HI. 
Castes. 



supposed that the scattered communities of Kurumbas or Kurubas 
which are found in many parts of this Presidency are tlie descend- 
ants of refugees belonging to this race who fled to the wilds 
from their conquerors, but there is no real evidence that this 
is so. 

Except the TJr division, the Nilgiri Kurumbas are generally 
shy people who flee at the sight of a European, and their ways 
stand in. much need of: further investigation. 1 

The Kurumbas of the plateau reside in rude hamlets known as 
motias or hambais which are usually placed on or near the slopes 
of the hills and consist of some half a dozen hats made of wattle 
and mud and thatched with grass. This word kmnbai forms part 
of the names of several villages on the edges of the plateau 
(Kulakambai, Manjakambai and others) and apparently denotes 
that these were once Kurumba, settlements. 

The people of the tribe are short, slightly built and dark- 
complexioned., and resemble the Irulas closely in general 
appearance. The men are noticeable from their wiry and curly 
hair, which sticks up all round their heads like a black halo, and 
the women from, their one garment, a cloth passed straight across 
the breasts j tied under the arms and reaching down to their 
knees. These Kurumbas speak a dialect which has been de- 
scribed as savouring of Oanarese, but which Dr. Caldwell considers 
to be a rude Tamil. They subsist in much the same way as the 
Irulas and; like them, are far better off than they used to be. 
They often assist the K6tas to make music at T6da and Badaga 
ceremonies (they pay no gi'tdu to the T6das) and they also trade 
largely on the extraordinary dread of their supposed magical 
powers which possesses the T6cLas and the Badagas™ the latter 
especially. 

Bach Badaga village or group of villages has its own Kurumbas 
attached to it, and these are invited at the beginning of every 
cultivation season to officiate at the ceremonies considered essen- 
tial to secure good crops and are paid to turn the first sod and 
sow the first seeds. Similarly when the harvest is ripe they are 
■invited to reap the first sheaf and are again paid for their services. 
Specific instances of these ceremonies are giyen in the account of 
Melur in Chapter XV, If cattle-disease or blight among the 
crops appear, the Kurumbas are again consulted and begged to 
remove the scourge. The Badagas used to stand in even more 
mortal terror of them than they do now ; and Metz declares that 



1 Bresfea and S&ovfct may be consulted and Mr. Thurston's Bthnogm® hi? Sf^tea 
contains material. 



THE PEOPLE. 



155 



if a single Badaga "met a Kurumba in a lonely, jungly place he 
' not unf requently ' died of sheer fright. Now and again when a 
string of misfortunes overtook the Todas and Badagas, and the 
Kurumbas did not alleviate them, the men of these two castes fell 
upon, the Kurumbas and murdered a "batch ol thein. Instances of 
this kind occurred in 1824, 1885 (when as many as 58 of them 
were massacred), 1875, 1882, 1801 and as recently as l'JOO. These 
cases have always proved most difficult to detect, as the other 
tribes firmly heiieve that there is no other way of counter- 
acting the Kurumbas 5 evil magic and combine to screen, the 
murderers. 

Kurumba marriage ceremonies are of the simplest. Apparently 
a youth merely selects a girl as his bride and gives a feast to the 
relations on both sides to announce the fact. 

The funeral rites of the tribe rudely resemble those of the 
Badagas, the dying man being made to swallow a Viraraya fanam, 
and a funeral car being made round which music and dancing take 
place. The bodv is generally burnt and the ashes left to the 
mercy of the jackals and the winds of heaven. In some places it 
is "buried and a water-worn stone is brought and set up in a small 
cromlech olose by the cemetery. At long intervals a memorial 
ceremony similar to the manavalai of the Badagas is held, 

ICururoba religious ideas are apparently of the vaguest. They 
call themselves Saivites, hut seem to have no regular shrines 
or very definite deities. 

The tTr (' village '} Kurumbas who occur in small numbers 
near Nellialam are, as their name implies, a civilized community. 
They speak Oanarese and are immigrants from Mysore, where 
numbers more of them (whose ways have often been described) 
reside. 

The Jen (or «Fenu) Kurumhas are so called by other castes on 
account of their skill in collecting honey (jenu) from wild hoes' 
nests on cliffs and precipices. They clamber down at night with 
the help of rattan ladders. They themselves, however, object to 
this name and call themselves Jenu Koyyo Shola Nayakas (' lioney- 
outting lords of the woods ') or Shola Nayakas for short. 1 

They speak Oanarose and live in the depths of the jungles in 
"bamboo huts thatched with grass. They have a definite caste 
organization, a headman called the ejumin, assisted by a panchayat, 
wielding the usual authority in domestic and caste matters. 

1 M. Lotus Lapicque, in a nofco in tha Coraptos reiulos dos Seances <3e la 
Sooi^fce dc Biologic, differentiate?! Shdla Nayakas from Kurumbas j but Mv. 
Thurston's enquiries and fctiostj made foi* tlio jjurjjoaes oi' thin present volume* go 
to show that; lie is ixi un'or in cfolug so. 



Principal 
Castes. 



156 THE KXLGTRIS. 

CHAP. III. When a girl attains puberty she is made to live in a new hat 

Piuncipal "built by her elder brother for the occasion arid is there visited "by 
astes. k er re i a -fci ons> After ten days she has a "bath and is allowed to 
return home. A youth has a claim to the hand of his paternal 
aunt's daughter. Marriage occurs after puberty and the match 
is made by the hoy's parents. Preliminary palavers having been, 
held, the girl's mother provides a tali (or marriage badge) and 
a new cloth for the boy and the latter's parents contribute a new 
cloth and brass rings and bangles for the girl. The two parties 
eventually meet and the "bride's mother ties the tali, after which 
a dinner is given whereat the happy couple eat out of the same 
cup, helping each other in turn to a handful of the fare provided. 
They are next shut up in a hut together and the ceremony is over. 
"Widow remarriage is allowed, but in such cases it is the woman's 
parents, and not the man's, who seek out a suitable mateli. No 
ceremonies are performed, the couple merely going to live 
together as soon as their parents have arranged matters. Only 
the men can claim a divorce — not the women. 

Yery old people are cremated and the rest are buried in a 
sitting posture. The grave is marked with a stone. On the 
seventh day afterwards the deceased's family go into the jungle 
and the eldest man among them plucks a piece of grass and makes 
a hole and plants it. JNIest lie takes a new bamboo pot, fills it with 
water and adds, with his first finger, two drops of castor oil. If 
these remain apart, it is a bad omen and no more is done ; but if 
they run together the oil and water are poured over the grass and 
the new pot is taken back and kept in the shrine of the god Billala. 
Whenever afterwards any of the relations pass the grave, they 
throw a little tobacco or betel and nut upon it to solace the dead, 
and for the first two rainy seasons they build a rude hut over it to 
shelter the departed from the wrath of the elements. The same 
observances are paid to the spot where any one has been cremated, 
except that no hut is built in the monsoons. 

Three caste deities are worshipped ; namely, Kallatha (a god- 
dess) and Airu JBilli and Kadn Billala, both of whom are gods who 
are supposed to have come to the Wynaad from Malabar A 
ceremony in their honour, subscribed for by the caste in general, 
is held in April every year, a cock or two being sacrificed, much 
rice cooked and eaten by the celebrants, and a dance being held, 

Ifike their more backward "brethren on the Nilgiri plateau, the 
Jen Knrumbas are held to he great magicians, and stories are told 
of how they can summon wild elephants at will and reduce rocks 
to powder merely by scattering mystic herbs upon them. 



TEE 1'EQPLE. 157 

The mutual relations of the five tribes who inhabit the hills — CHAP. TIL 
the Badagas, Kotas, Todas, Irulas and Kurmnbas above referred Peiscifal 

to — require a few words "by way of summary. The Badagas and ; " 

Todas have more to do with each other than the rest. The former .Relations 

are not only the agriculturists of the latter (paying them the. g^™""^ 

yearly contribution of grain called g-iidu which they also give the 

Kotas and Kurumbas) but are the intermediaries between them 

and the world bejond the Jfilgiris ; and the two regard themselves 

as more or less social equals. When a Toda meets a Badaga 

headman or an aged Badaga with whom he is acquainted, be stands 

in front of him, bows his bead slightly and says ' You have come.' 

The Badaga replies ' Blessing ! Blessing !' and rests his hand on 

the top of the Toda's head. Each of the U dairies has attached to 

it a special Badaga whose duty is to supply it with the various 

articles required for the worship which are made by ordinary 

Kmdus — such as the earthenware vessels used in the inner room 

and the garments of the pulol. A Badaga also sits on certain 

occasions on the Toda paachayat. 

Both Badagas and Todas regard the carrion-eating Kotas as 
their inferiors. When a Kota meets a T6da lie raises both hands 
to his face and salutes from a distance, and a Toda will not ordin- 
arily sleep or take food in any of the seven Kdta villages. Both 
Badagas and Todas avail themselves of the services of the K6tas 
as musicians, potters and smiths, each Kota village supplying 
certain Toda clans. The Kotas are, indeed, artisans to all the 
hill tribes. At Toda green funerals they are expected to provide 
the cloak in which the corpse is wrapped, five to ton measures 
of sa'niai and a rupee or two ; and at dry funerals another cloak, 
a few rupees towards the expenses, a bow and three arrows, 
a knife, a sieve and a basket. In return they get the bodies of the 
buffaloes which are slain at funerals or which die a natural death, 
and at Kdta funerals the Todas supply a male buffalo calf and a 
measure of ghi- Once in a year, too, the Todas go to the Kota 
villa«e with which they are connected, make a present of ghi and 
receive one of grain, these being offered and taken with much 
ceremonial. 

Tho Kurumbas and Ii'iilis live a far more exclusive life than 
the other throe tribes and eome but little in contact with them 
except in connection with their magical powers already referred to. 
When they meet a Toda they bend forward and the T6da places 
his hand on their heads. The Kurumbas supply the Tcklas with 
the long pole used, at the funeral dances and with the wooden posts 
at which the buffaloes are killed at these ceremonies. 



168 



THE BTILCHfilS. 



CHAP. m. 

Principal 

Castes, 



It remains to refer to two castes ia the Wynaad — tlie Ohctfci 
landowners and their farm-labourers the Paniyans. 

The former have now no connection whatever with the Chetti 
traders of the Tamil and Telugu. country, but resemble in appear- 
ance the Nayars and Tiyans of Malabar, being* fair-skinned and 
straight -featured, wearing- their top-knots hanging oyer one side 
of their foreheads, and living in neat little houses after the 
Malabar pattern, made of woven bamboo tatties covered with 
smoothened earth decorated with patterns and figures of animals 
done in clmnam, provided with wide pials and deep eaves, and 
surrounded by a trim, fenced fruit- garden. 

Though they are all outwardly much alike, these Ghettis are 
of two kinds which form two separate castes. The first of these, 
called the Mandfidan Ohettis, speak a corrupt Canarese, follow the 
Makkatayam law of inheritance, and. seem to have always been 
natives of the Wynaad ; while the second, known as the Wynaadan 
Ghettis, speak Malaya~lain, follow Marumakkatayani, and say they 
are immigrants from the Ooimbatore side. The two communities 
do not intermarry and their womenkind will not even mess 
together. 

' Mand&dan' is supposed to be a corruption of Hahavalinadu, 
the traditional name still applied to the country between Kella- 
kottai and Tippak&du, iu which these Ghettis principally leside 
and over which the Vfflunnavars of Nambalakod onee held sway. 
These Ghettis recognize as many as eight different headmen who 
each havo names and a definite order of precedence— the latter 
being accurately marked by the varying lengths of the periods of 
pollution observed when they die. They are supposed to be the 
descendants in the nearest direct line of the original ancestors of 
the caste and they are shown special respect on public occasions 
and settle domestic and caste disputes. 

Marriages take place after puberty and are arranged through 
go-betweens called Madhyastas. When matters have been set in 
train the contracting parties meet and the boy's parents measure 
out a certain quantity of paddy and present it to the bride's 
people while the Madhyastas formally solicit the approval to the 
match of all the nearest relatives. The bride is bathed and 
dressed in a new cloth and the couple are then seated under a 
pandal. The priest of the Nambalakod temple comes with flowers, 
blesses the tali and bands it to the bridegroom, who ties it round 
the bride's neck. Sometimes the young man is made to work 
for the girl as Jacob did for Rachel, serving her father for a period 
(generally of from one to four years) the length of which is 



THE PEOPLE. 159 

settled by a pauchayat. In such cases the father-in-law pays the OlIAP. III. 
expenses of the wedding and sets up the young couple with a Principal 
louse and some land. Married women are not prohibited from f!. rES ' 
conferring favours on their husbands' brothers, but adultery 
outside the caste is severely dealt with. 

Adoption seems to be unknown. A widow may remarry. If 
she weds her deceased husband's brother, the only ceremony is a 
dinner after which the happy pair ai*e formally seated on the same 
mat; but if she marries any one else a pandal and tali are 
provided. 

Divorce is allowed to both parties and divorcees may re- 
marry. In their cases, however, the wedding rites are much 
curtailed. 

The dead are usually burnt ; but those who have been killed 
by accidents or epidemics are buried. When any one is at death's 
door, he or she is made to swallow a little water from a vessel in 
which some riee and a gold coin have been placed. The body ih 
bathed and dressed in a new cloth, sometimes music is played and 
a gun fired, and in all casos the deceased's family walk three 
times round the pyre before it is fired by the chief mourner. 
When the period of pollution is over, holy water is fetched from 
the Namhalakod temple and sprinkled all about the house. 

These Ohettis are Saivites aud worship the Befarayasvarai of 
£fambalak6d, the Aim Bilii of the Kurumbas and one or two 
other minor gods, and certain deified ancestors. These minor 
gods have no regular shrines, but huts provided with platforms 
for them to sit upon, in which lamps are lit in the evenings, are 
built for them about the fields and jungles. 

Ohetti women are often handsome. In the house they wear 
only a waist-cloth, but they put on an upper cloth when they 
venture abroad. They distend the lobes of their ears, and for the 
first few years after marriage wear in them circular gold ornaments 
somewhat resembling those affected by the Nayar ladies. After 
that period they substitute a strip of rolled-up palm-loaf. They 
have an odd custom of wearing a big chignon made up of plaits of 
their own hair cut off at intervals In their girlhood. 

The Wynaadan Ghettis say they were originally Vellaks from Wyaaadan 
Ooimbatore, followed Makkatayani, spoke Tamil and wore the °^ti*. 
Tamil top-knot. In proof of this they point out that at their 
weddings they still follow certain Tamii customs, the bridegroom 
wearing a turban and a red cloth with a silver girdle over it 
and being shaved, and the women putting on petticoats and 
nose-rings. 



160 



TffE ttXLGXBIti. 



OHAP. III. 

PEINCIFAlu 

Castes. 



Pamyatis. 



They have headmen called kolapallis, subordinate to whom are 
mantiris, but those are liable to be overruled by a nid council. 
No wedding may take place without the headman's leave. 

Two forms of marriage are recognized. In one the couple 
exchange garlands after the Tamil fashion and the father (a relic 
of the Hakkatayam system) conducts the ceremony. Preliminaries 
are ananged by go-betweens and the chief of the numerous rites 
is the placing of a bracelet on the girl's upper arm under a pandal 
before the priest and the assembled relatives. 

The other form is simpler. The bridegroom goes to the 
girl's house with some men friends and after a dinner there a 
go-between puts on the bangle. 

Before marriag'es a tali-kettu ceremony resembling that of the 
Nayars is often gone through, all the girls of a family who are of 
marriageable age having talis tied round their necks on the same 
day by a maternal undo. 

Married women are allowed intimacy with their husbands' 
brothers. Widows are permitted to -marry again. The dead are 
usually burnt, but (a? with the Mand^dan Chettis) those who have 
met their deaths by accidents and epidemics are buried. Water 
from a vessel containing rice and a gold coin is poured, as before, 
into the dying person's month. The other ceremonies are not 
particularly noteworthy. Should the spirit of the dead disturb 
the dreams of the relatives , a hut for it is built under an astrologer's 
directions close to the house, and in this lights are lit morning 
and evening and periodical offerings of food are made. 

The Wynaadan Chettis reverence the deities in the G-anapati, 
Mahamari and Kalimalai Tambiran temples near Sultan's Battery, 
the Aim Billi already mentioned, and one or two others. The 
women wear in their distended ear-lobes the gold discs which are 
so characteristic of the Nayars, and many necklaces. They use 
two white cloths, tying one round the waist and another across 
their breasts. 

The Paniyans are a short, dark-skinned tribe with broad noses 
and such curly hair that they are popularly (but erroneously) 
supposed to tie of: African descent. They speak a corrupt patois 
of Malayalam, live in dirty little huts made of bamboo wattle 
plastered with mud and thatched with grass, and follow the 
Hakkatayam law of inheritance. Each family is attached to some 
Ohetti household and works on its fields, and in past times they 
were little better than agrestic slaves. The advent of the coffee- 
planter did much to liberate them, but they are still usually poor, 
tinkempt and unclean. They are oleyei at netting (and poisoning 



THE PEOPLE. 181 

fish, and daring at spearing tigers in the manner described on ORAP, in, 

p, 30. They have hereditary caste headmen (called Ku titans or Principal 

Janmis) at all the larger centres, whose consent to all mamages is A8 ^ 6 ' 
necessary. 

When a youth is betrothed, he is expected to bring his 
fiancee a bundle of firewood at frequent intervals until the 
wedding-day. Weddings take place in the bride's house and the 
Kuttan officiates. He invests the girl with a cloth with four- 
annas knotted in the corner and a bead necklace, both provided 
by the bridegroom, throws water at the couple's feet and sprinkles 
some round them to avert U\e evil eye The bride-price being 
duly paid, the girl's father hands her over and the Kuttan then 
solemnly adjures the young husband neither to starve nor bully her 
and, turning to the father, promises that should either occur he 
will get the girl back and return her to her parents. JUelations 
between a married woman and her husband's brothers and cousins 
are loose. Widow re-marriage is allowed. 

Young folk are buried and the rest cremated. Graves are dug 
in an unusual way : T at the bottom of a trench some five feet deep 
and running due north and south a chamber big enough for the 
body is excavated in the western wall and the body, wrapped in 
a mat, is laid therein. A. little cooked rice for the spirit is added 
and the trench filled in.. For seven days afterwards the deceased's 
relations abjure mea,t and iish, and a little rice gruel is placed at 
some distance from this grave by the Knttan, who claps his hands 
as a signal to the evil spirits round about to come and he fed. 
Mourning ceremonies are held in the month of Magaram (January- 
February), when those who have lost relatives during the year 
cook their food m a special shed apart from the village and eat 
neither flesh nor fish. On the last day of the mouth they assemble 
at the shed and the Kuttan or Janrai walks round it three times, 
holding in his crossed arms two winnowing sieves containing 
paddy which he eventually deposits in the middle oS ib. Then a 
komaran, a kind of professional soothsayer, appears with a new 
cloth about his brows, his body smeared with rice-flour and ghi } 
and bells on his legs to scare away the evil spirits, and advancing 
with short steps and rolling eyes, staggers to and -fro, sawing the 
air with two small sticks, and gradually works himself into a 
state- of frenzy which ends in his collapsing on trie ground. The 
assembled mourners then question him as to the reason why their 

1 Mr. Oolin Mackenzie's ararrmt quoted hi JKiwJraj, M<u,*ev.m Bulletin, Vol. II, 
So, I, p, 22, 
31 



182 



THIS KILGIEIg. 



Pbiscipal 
Castes. 



relations were taken from them and Ms 

accepted as a divine answer. 

He eventually recovers, and taking the bells off Ms legs holds 
item in his hands and to the accompaniment of their jingling 
chants a funeral lament of whic h uo man knows the meaning and 
wHch lasts till dawn. 

The Paniyans' cliief goddess is Kattn Bhagavati or ' Bhagavati 
of the woods.'* Shrines in h.er honour are to "be found at most 
centres of the casie and contain no image, but a box in which as 
kept the clothing and jewels presented to her "by the devout. An 
annual ceremony lasting a week is held in her honour at which the 
komaran and a kind of priest called the nolarabukaran take the 
chief parts. The former dresses hi the goddess' clothing and the 
divine afflatus descends upon him and he prophesies "both good and 
evil. 

The men's dress consists of a waist-cloth. As a defence against 
rain they wear an odd covering ( like an inverted coal-scoop ' 
made of split reeds woven together with arrowroot leaves. The 
women wear one cloth which they throw over the shoulders and 
knot across the "breast, much, base-metal jewellery, and sometimes 
in their distended ear-lobes a big wax disc set all round with the 
bright, red and black seeds of the Abrus p'eeatorius which the 
goldsmiths of the plains use as weights. 



AGRICULTURE. 



16S 



CHAPTEE IV. 

AGBICULTURE. 



Cereal Crops — Btatistics — Cultivation on the plateau—Sails — Methods — Chief 
crops — Cultivation in the Wynaid — Soils— Methods; on dry Icind — On wet 
IsiBd. Special Products —Coffee — Its first introduction — Subsequent vicis- 
situdes- Cultivation— Diseases — Processes of manufacture — Tea — Its first, 
introduction —And subsequent extension — Processes of manufacture — Cin- 
chona— Its introduction — Government plantations begun — The first febrifuge 
made — Changes m administration — Private planting of olnchona — Work on 
tbe Government plantations at present — Maintenance of the supply of bark — 
The species of cinchona grown — Harvesting of the bark — Manufacture of 
quinine— Rubber —Its introduction — Extent now planted — Harvesting — 
Rhea fibre. Fruit -tkijbs, etc.— Apples— Pears —Medlars— Quinces— Peaches 
— Nectarines — Apricots— ■ Plums- -Persimmon — Cherries— Currants — Goose- 
berries — Kaspberries — Strawberries — Mulberries — Figs —Vines — Guavas — 
Oranges and lemons — Cherimoyer— Nuts— Bee-keeping. Government 
JTasms and CtABIjkws — The Kefci farm —The Government Gardens, Ootacamund 
—The "Kalhatbi branch garden — The Coonoor branch garden— Sim's Park, 
Coonoor — The Barliyar Garden — Tho present Government Gardens and 
Parka. 

Agriculture in the district divides itself natural!)' into two 
classes ; namely, the cultivation of food-cropa carried out by the 
natives and the growth "by Europeans of special products such as 
coffee, tea, cinchona, rubber, fruit trees, etc. These classes will 
be separately treated and a few words then added regarding the 
farms and gardens which have been, or sti]] are, maintained by 
Government. 

It may be noted in parenthesis thai there is no artificial 
irrigation in any part of the district and that the land is all 
ryotwari, there "being neither zamindaris nor mains in the 
Hilgiris. 

The following statistics show at a glance the general agri- 
cultural position in the district : — 



Percentage of the area shown in the village 
accounts which is 



Forest and 
other area 
not avail- 
able for 

cultivation. 






Cultivable 

waste 

other than 

fallow 



Current 
fallows. 






Coonoor ... 
Ootacamu nd 
Gtaaftr ... 



38*0 
58' 8 



1'3 

33'3 



Net area : 
cropped. 



20-* 
7*0 

(f6 



CHAP. IV, 
Cereal 
Chops. 



164 



THE NILGlJftSS. 



CHAP. IV. 
CaasiAi, 





Percentage of area 


under cacl 


crop to 


Crops. 




total area 


cropped. 














Ooonoor, 


Ootaca- 
raund. 


GudaHir. 


District 
total. 





r 




_.- 





Cereals and pnlses- 










Saroai 


1-17 


( 4-3 


3-3 


8-4 


ltico . 




1 - 


33'1 


7-8 


Korali 


U'9 


7-S 




7-7 


Bagi 


l'o 


1 7-1 


M 


40 


Barley 


5'4 


3-4 




3'5 


Wheat ... 


VI 


2-9 




1-7 


Others 


1-2 


20-0 




7'0 


Oil-seeda .. 




0-7 




0-2 


Condiments anrl apices . 


3 


0'2 


6-1 


0-2 


Drogs and narcotics — 










Coffee ... 


44' G 


18-1 


43-9 


36-0 


Tea 


T1 


, ia-8 


13-1 


10-0 


Cinchona 


1-1 


! 10-0 


2-6 


4-6 


Others ... 






01 




Orchards and garden produce — 










Potatoes 


4-8 


3-a 




3-2 


Others 


0-4 


0-7 


0-4 


0T> 


Miscellaneous non-food crops- - 










Blue gunr 


4-5 


7-S 




4'5 


Others 


0-2 






0'1 



From these it -will, be seen that in. Ooonoor taluk only half the 
area shown in the village accounts is cropped or under fallows, 
while seven per cent, of it is eulturable but still unoccupied and 
the remainder is forest or other land not available for cultivation ; 
that in Gotacamund less than a fifth of the total area is cropped 
or fallow and hardly any unoccupied land remains, since four-fifths 
of the taluk is iorest.or other land not available for cultivation ; 
and that in Gudalur the forests and the occupied land each make 
up some two-ilfths of the total area while as much as one-fifth, is 
oultusable hut not occupied. 

Again, in Ooonoor, of the total area cropped, more tha.n half 
is grown with coffee, tea and cinchona , while the chief cereals 
are the two millets oalled s^mai (Panicum miliars) and korali 
{Seiaria glaum)-, which are often sown together in the same field. ; 
in Ootacamund the area under plantation products is proportion- 
ately smaller, while korali and rsagi (JSleusifie eoramna) are 
the principal food-crops ; and in GhidaMr the percentage under 
coffee, tea, etc.; is higher thau in either of the other taluks, hut 
the chief (indeed almost the only) cereal is paddy. The area 
shown under plantations in this last taluk, however, includes a 
good man)'' estates which have no"w been practically abandoned. 
In both Ooonoor and Uotaoamrmd the areas planted with blue 
gum. trees for firewood are considerable. 



AGJHCHLTttaE. 165 

On the whole, little more than one-tenth of the district area 
is cropped each year and of this less than half is cultivated with 
food-crops and more than half with coffee, tea and cinchona. 
Consequently large quantities of grain have to he imported from 
Coimbatore and Mysore, and it has been calculated that the 
district', produces food for only four months' consumption and 
that the supply for the other eight months is imported- 

Begirding the native methods of cultivating- the va-rious cereals 
there is little to he said. Those in vogue on the plateau naturally 
differ from those in the Wyn'aad, as the seasons, crops and 
agricultural castes in. the two areas are quite dissimilar. 

On the plateau none but ' dry ' crops are grown, and there the 
Badaga and [Cota. agriculture is careful only in the Selds immedi- 
ately adjoining the villages, 'which are known as halihola. In 
these, a fair amount of cattle manure is used; stone walling is 
often practised ; and the women do their best to keep down the 
weeds ; and in them are grown the more valuable cereals (such 
as barley, wheat and ragi) and garden crops like potatoes, onions, 
mustard, garlic and the red-flowered amaranth, known as 
Prince's feather in England. This halihola is the only land 
on which two crops are ever cultivated, barley and wheat 
being raised between May and September and August and 
December and potatoes between April and September and 
August and January. The land called shdlakola, which occupies 
the site of woodlands which have been felled, is also more than 
usually productive and is treated with some cave. But the 
kaduhola, or ordinary land of the plateau, is cultivated in the 
most casual manner with torali and samai and is neither 
properly ploughed., regularly (if ever) manured, nor sufficiently 
Weeded,, and consequently produces the most wretched crops. It 
suffers most from the ryots' neglect to prevent the top-soil from 
being scoured away during each monsoon : it is hardly ever 
terraced and rarely even protected with catch-drains ; and conse- 
quently in most places the top-soil has gone down to Tanjore 
district by way of the Oauvery river and all thai; is left is the stiff, 
infertile, red and yellow clay which forms the subsoil of the 
greater part of the plateau. 

The soils of this tract were not classified at the last settlement ; 
a-nd it is not possible to give statisties of them. Four varieties 
are usually recognized. These are («) the black, which is a rich 
loam and the best of all (the black peaty earth of the bogs, how- 
ever, is useless until well-worked and. manured) ; {It) the brown, a 
clay loam which comes second in productiveness but often lies on a 



108 



THE MIIiGTBXS. 



0&oj?s. 



Ohisf crops. 



lateritic subsoil which is so dry and hungry that manure is apt 
to be washed down below the reach of plants "before it can. be 
utilized ; (o) the yellow, a atr$ clay which requires draining and 
is fit for little but grass or timber plantations until ib has been 
deeply worked and maoured ; and (d) the red soil, which is 
not so stiff as the last but is equally hungry and unproductive. 
The poorness of these soils as a class may be gathered from the 
fact that nearly four-fifths of the occupied area in the district is 
assessed at As. 10 and less per acre. Many of them will not 
stand continuous cropping, and this is the explanation of the large 
areas of fallows which appear in the statistics above. In all of 
them the proportion of lime is far below normal, and manures 
containing this constituent are always useful. One of the best 
European authorities on the subject gives as much as a ton of 
lime per acre to all his grain crops and another declares this 
manure to be e the beginning, the middle and the end of agricul- 
ture 5 on the hills ; but until the railway reaches Ootacamimd it 
will continue to be a most expensive substance to import. 

Kaduhoia land is ploughed in the ordinary way and not deep 
enough, and the seed is sown broadcast (not drilled) and too 
thickly. Thereafter the crop is practically left to the women to 
-weed and harvest, the men earning daily wages as coolies in the 
towns or on the estates or public roads. Harvesting is done with 
a sichle and the grain is trodden out by cattle, which are driven 
round ancl round over the straw in much the usual manner. The 
little circular threshing-uoors where this is done are dotted all 
about the hill-sides,, and the men urge the cattle round with a 
quaint cry resembling the first five notes in the ordinary musical 
scale. 

Of the crops chiefly raised on the plateau the samai and ragi 
resemble those of the plains. KoraK is less commonly known. 
It is a tiny millet, the grain of which is about one-twentieth the 
size of wheat, is cultivated on every description of soil, and does 
well even en the poorest land and in the most exposed situations. 
The wheat chiefly grown is a bearded kind the busk of which 
adheres so closely that it can only be removed by pounding. 1 
' The Bada^as consider this characteristic a great merit, as it pro- 
tects the grain from the many weevils which swarm on the hills. 
Another kind is called by the Badagas 'the naked wheat ' 
because its husk comes ofi; so readily. This is a European, variety 
and was introduced by Mr. .1. Sullivan in the course of his 

J- TMs and many oi tba facta "below are taken Svom a report written in 18?fi 
by Mr. W. B. "BoTaertsoE, Superintendent, of Government, B'armB. 



endeavours to improve Badaga estivation ; but, ■whether from bad OHAP. IT. 
farming, poor soil, hybridisation with tlie indigenous sorts or Cideeat, 
want of care to keep it separate front these latter, it has greatly _^. a ' 

deteriorated. Neither kind produces flour good enough to make 
bread or pastry for Europeans. 

Of 'barley several varieties are raised. The favourite among 
the Badagas is a six-rowed, naked kind called aldi gdnfi ; and 
two other six- rowed sorts are the Badat/a gdnj'-i, which is supposed 
to be the indigenous barley, and Dorm { f *>entleinati's ') gdnji i 
which is said to be descended from some seed imported by Mr. 
Sullivan but is now inferior to the indigenous kind. Mr. Honey- 
well, who started in 3 857 the brewery at Aravanka*d referred to 
on p. 289 below, imported the seed of several good sorts of Scotch 
and English malting barleys and distributed them to the Badagaa 
round Aravankad, promising to buy the crop raised from them at 
prices much above the market rates for "the local barley. But 
after three generations the produce of these quickly deteriorated 
owing to the Badagas giving it insufficient manure and casual 
tillage and not even troubling to keep ifc separate from their own 
inferior kinds, and it was found necessary continually to import 
fresh seed. The average oat-turn of Badaga barley is only about 
ten bushels an acre, whereas in England fifty or sixty 'bushels an 
acre would be nothing unusual. There is always a ready market 
for the grain, the local breweries buying it at from Ks. 1-12-0 to 
Bs. 2 per bushel. Mr. 0eorge * lakes has obtained better results 
at his place Downhani, near Kalhatti, from EngMi (Hallett's 
pedigree), Australian (Best Malting) and Rewari seed, the English 
producing fifteen bushels an acre which sold for Rs. 3 per bushel. 

Potatoes are much exported to Ceylon, the Straits and 
Burma, are beginning to be appreciated by native consumers, 
and are consequently a paying crop (a good field fetches Bs. 250 
per acre as it stands) and are grown wherever the soil is suitable. 
But in size and flavour they are much inferior to English varieties 
owing chiefly to the fact that the same? kinds are put down in the 
same land year after year until the yield diminishes to the point 
where it ceases to be remunerative and disease (which the 
Badaga never attempts to check j is encouraged. '(Government 
and private individuals have made several efforts to introduce 
better varieties; but little or no care has been taken by the 
natives to reserve or keep separate a stock of this superior seed, 
and they have generally sold the whole crop and returned to their 
own inferior varieties. Potatoes, however, are more carefully 
oidtivated than most cropSj the land being dug with a fork, 



n 



THE NILGtinxS. 



chap, rv. 

Obops, 



Cultivation 
in the 



manuring a ad. weeding being attended to, and the rows being 
ridged by hand with a marauti. Porcupines do much damage 
among them and they are particularly liable to he stolen. The 
pay of watchers is consequently an appreciable item in. the 
expenses of cultivation and one European experimenter with 
pedigree kinds who neglected this precaution discovered when he 
came to lift, his crop that thieves had stolen most of it by scrap- 
ing out the potatoes with their hands, leading only the bines 
standing. Potatoes do well in the black peaty soils if these are 
drained, broken up deeply and adequately manured} but the heat 
are raised in the neighbourhood of Kalhatti, where the soil is a 
reddish -brown loam, the rainfall moderate and frosts rare. 

Oats are a good crop to follow early potatoes, but the Badagas 
grow very little of them. Mr, George Oakes found the best 
variety for hay was the Patna kind and for grain either Australian 
or New Zealand. The expenses were : sowing, Ks. 3 per acre; 
lime, B»s. 10 ; cutting, drying and stacking for hay, lis. 12 ; seed 
(three bushels at Es. "3) Bs. ; total, Rs. 34. The yield was If- 
tons of hay per acre, value Bs. 60, which gives a profit of Us. 28 
per acre ; or sixteen bushels of grain, value Bs. 48, which makes 
a surplus of Ks. 14. 

Amaranth is only grown round about the villages, in good soil 
and sheltered situations, and is raised for home consumption and 
not for sale. The seed, a small white grain about one-fortieth 
the size of wheat, is made into flour and the leaves are cooked 
as a vegetable. 

English market-garden crops of very many kinds (such as 
carrots, turnips, tomatoes, parsnips, cabbages, vegetable marrows, 
cauliflowers, beet-root, radishes, lettuces, rhubarb, peas, French 
and broad beans, cucumbers, celery, etc.) are largely raised hy 
Badagas and immigrant Oanarese, and the towns are well supplied 
with them ; but the ryots have not yet succeeded in competing with 
the more businesslike and enterprising' Bangalore gardeners in 
the large market for these commodities which exists among Euro- 
peans hx the plains, i'he completion of the railway to Ootanamund 
may assist them. 

In the Wyn&ad, as the figures already given show, paddy is 
hj far the commonest crop and the only others raised on any 
appreciable extent of land are riigi and sumai. The two latter 
are grown as dry crops on the higher ground while the paddy is 
raised without artificial irrigation in the numerous swamps, 
locally called myah t which occupy almost all the depressions 
between the numerous little hills of the country and in many of 
whioh are strong springs of water. 



AGBXCULTCBB. 169 

Owing chiefly to the scarcity and inefficiency of the labour CHAP. IV. 
supply (which consists almost entirely of the Paniyans referred Ckeeal 
to in the last chapter), both dry and wet cultivation is astonish- ^ ora ' 

ing-ly careless. The dry fields are often so thickly covered with 
every kind of jungle weed that it is necessary to look twice to 
make sure that they really are cultivated and not waste ; and the 
paddy swamps are generally quite choked with korai grass and 
other intruders which no man moves hand or foot to root out. 
Sometimes the ryot merely roughly clears away the screw-pine 
which covers all swamps in the wild or neglected state and then 
scatters paddy broadcast among the stumps without further til- 
lage. The shifting cultivation of backward jungle-tribes is not 
more casual. 

At the last settlement the soils of the dry land in the Wynaad Soils, 
were roughly classified into four classes; namely., forest land, 
better scrub, inferior scrub and grass land. The first of these is 
of two kinds — a dark brown sort on which timber grows luxuri- 
antly and which is well suited to coffee and tea, ancl a red kind 
which produces good bamboo but only inferior timber. The 
better scrub land will do for any dry crop and for coffee ; but the 
inferior scrub will not stand continuous cropping and has to he 
left fallow to recuperate after one year's cultivation with ragi. 

Bagi and samai are often grown on the shifting (kumeri) Methods on 
system ; a patch of jungle being felled aud burnt, the ashes hoed dr 7 1 ft lld - 
in } and the seed scattered over the land after the first rains of the 
south-west monsoon. But the bulk of the dry cultivation is on 
permanent fields. 

Both on dry and wet lauds fencing- or continuous watching is 
necessary to prevent vvild, animals from damaging the crops, and 
one of the characteristics of Wynaad fields is the large number of 
watchers' raised platforms (machans) which are dotted about 
them, During the monsoon, watching all night is a damp and 
chilly occupation, and the men take fire braziers with them, to 
their platforms. Deer, wild pig and (in some places) elephants 
are the ryots 5 worst foes } and when, the crops are ripe parrots and 
monkeys have also to be guarded against. 

On the best land a common rotation is ragi in the first year, 
then samai, then harimi, or black paddy, and then a long spell of 
fallowing; but more often a crop of ragi is followed by several 
years' fallow and then by sAgi again. 

The wet land is almost all cultivated continuously with paddy. On wet laud. 
Only one crop can be raised in the year, as in a tract so much 
oolder than its usual habitat paddy ripens very slowly and is eight 

n 



170 



THE NILGIBTS. 



CHAP. IT. 
OsasAL 
Ceops. 



Special 



Its ftrat 

inti'ocluotioa. 



months on the ground, while the south-west monsoon is the only 
period when the land is wet enough for it. The seed is either 
sown "broadcast and ploughed in daring April before the monsoon 
"begins (this is called vdhhai) ; or the crop is transplanted between 
June and August from seed-beds (ndti) ; or seed is sown broad- 
cast in July after the fields have been soaked by the rain (hunjai)> 
A kind of rotation is secured by cultivating a field in these differ- 
ent ways in different years. Labour is so scarce that it is not 
possible to plant up all the fields at one time ; and the seed-beds 
are therefore often divided into several sections which are sown at 
intervals one after the other so that the seedlings may be ready 
for transplantation in small successive batches. Cattle manure is 
used ; but no green manure, plentiful though it is. Implements 
and the manner of using them are much, the same as elsewhere. 

The figures already given show that of the speciaL or planta- 
tion, products coffee occupies by far the largest area (38 per cent. 
of the total extent cultivated in the district) ; that tea (10'fi per 
cent.) comes next after a long interval ; that cinchona (4*6 per 
cent.) follows third ; and that so fax the area cultivated with others - 
(such as the rubber briefly referred to below) is negligible. 

The world's consumption of coffee is estimated at about sixteen 
million bags ; and of this about twelve million bags are supplied 
by Brazil and the remaining four million hj Java and South India. 
In South India more than half the coffee-producing area is situ- 
ated in Mysore and the remainder in the Madras Presidency. 
Coorg and Travancore. According to the official returns, the area 
in the Nilgiris is now 26,000 acres • but the figures for this 
1 product are based for the most part on the planters 5 own reports, 
and as these are too often neither complete nor regularly 
forwarded the statistics are seldom really trustworthy. 

According to tradition, the coffee-plant was introduced into 
Mysore by a Muhanraiadan pilgrim named Baba Booden who 
came and took up his abode in the uninhabited range now 
known as the Baba Booden hills, where he established a land 
of college. It is said that he brought with him from Mocha 
seven coffee berries, which he planted near his hermitage. 
Bound about this still stand some very old coffee trees. 

About 1795 Colonel Read, the well-known Collector of 
Salem, started un unsuccessful experimental plantation at 
Tirnppattur in his district ; 1 and Dr. Buchanan mentions 
having seen some very thriving young trees at Tellicherry in 

1 Abl>4 DaW*' letter to the Eesidont of Mysore, dated ISfch Saptettib 
\W$ t in PapBrt relating to th* eofe* distriet*, Madras, 1859, 



Products. 



ACmi CULTURE. 171 

1801. 1 The plant appears to have been introduced into the CHAP. IT. 
Malabar Wynaad from Anjarakaudi by Mr. Brown in 1828 s Spkcui- 
but it was not. until 3839 that its cultivation became an enterprise 
there. a The first plantations on the Nilgiri plateau were started 
about'the same time, Mr. Dawson of Ooonoor putting down 
some plants there in 1838 and a small experiment being made 
in 1 839 at Kalhatti with seedlings from JVIauantoddy. 3 Major 
Ouchterlony's survey report of 1847 on the plateau says — 

' Numerous plantations of coffee trees arc scattered about the 
Hills, principally situated on the elopes descending to the plains, 
where the elevation suitable for the growth of this shrub can be 
obtained. Until within the last two or three years, coffee plantations 
were only found on the eastern side of the Hills, but representations 
of the excellent quality of the berry, and of the advantages attending 
its cultivation on the ISTeilgherries, having been made in Ceylon, the 
attention of the skilful planters of that island was attracted in this 
direction, and the result has been the opening of several plantations, 
where I ventured to predict, in a former memoir, that this description 
of cultivation would sooner or later be introduced, viz., on the 
western slopes of the Hills, where advantages are offered to the 
planter eminently superior to those, the possession of which has of 
late years so greatly enhanced the value and importance of the 
neighbouring islands. 

What may be called the old plantations in the othei' parts of the 
Hills, but principally on the north-eastern slopes, are insignificant in 
point of size but remarkable for the peculiarly fine flavour of the 
coffee produced, which is considered to be owing to the high elevation 
at which most of them a,ro situated. Some plantations near Ooonoor 
and Kotergherry are 6,000 feet above the lev<d of the sea, but it 
seems to me that the advantage derived from this superiority of 
flavour is more than counterbalanced by the general want of vigour 
and -luxuriance of the coffee trees, which evidently do not thrive in 
this latitude bo well at an elevation above 4,500 feet, aa between that 
and 3,000 feet. It is not easy to estimate the amount of land 
at present under actual cultivation for coffee on the Neilgherries, as 
in most cases the coffee fields ase so raised up with the mulberry 
grounds that it is difficult to arrive at the precise extent of each, but 
it may be pronounced not to exceed 280 acres on the eastern side, and 
S00 acres on the western.' 

Shortly afterwards the Ouohterlony Valley was opened up 
with coffee in the circumstances set out on p. 374 below, and 
thirty years later (1866-67) the area planted up was retained 
as IB,500 acres yielding 3| million pounds of crop. The 

1 Mysore, Canara and Malabar (Madras, 1870), ii, 187. 

- District Manual, 483. 

3 Asiatic Journal, xxxW, 103, 



172 



the wiLaiaii. 



Special 
"products, 



vioiseitnfles. 



eastern, aoathern and north-western slopes proved the most 
favourable to the growth of coffee, the Ktmdahs ou the west 
"being too much exposed to the south-west monsoon and the 
northern slopes too dry. 

According to the statistics (which, however, as already 
stated, require to "be accepted with reserve) the industry reached 
its highest point of prosperity in 1879, when the area cultivated 
in the whole district was 25,000 acres and the crop reached 30^ 
million pounds. Insect pests and disease in the plantations, 
low prices resulting from increased production in other countries, 
arid the dissipation of much energy iu the vain search for gold 
in the Wynaad "boom of 1870-82 caused a reaction ; and in 
1884-85 the exports were 3 per cent, less than in 1883-84 and 
their value 13 per cent, less, prices iu Tjondon having dropped 
from between £3-5-0 and J54 a ewt. to "between £2-16-6 and 
£2-19-0. Short crops iu Brazil and speculation in the European 
aiad American markets occasioned a recovery in prices iii the 
years following; and by 1890 they had risen to £4- 9-0 a cwt. 
Various diseases, however, had ruined many estates, and the 
exports, instead of rising in consequence of better prices, began 
to fall. In. 1892-93 prices still kept np owing to the facts that 
the coffee in Ceylon had been so attacked by various pests that 
large areas of it had been abandoned, and that the crops in Java 
and Brazil were small. In 1893-94 the sustained operations of 
a French syndicate, aided by a series of revolutions (in 3 889, 
1891 and 1893) in Brazil and a short crop in Java, resulted in 
the high level being maintained ; but in 1896-97 the Brazilian 
crop was splendid and the Indian one short, and prices 
declined sharply. In the nest few years oyer-production in 
Brazil caused a further fall in all coffees of the classes which 
(like the Indian sorts) competed with the product of that country 
and were not of a grade superior to it, and this downward 
movement continued until 1900, when the low water-mark was 
reached and the average price of Indian plantation coffee was 
only £2-7-0 a cwt. — a decline of 50 per cent, on the figure of 
1897. 

Disease, howovsr, was now doing much less damage than 
before, and in 1900-1901 exports began to rise in spite of the low 
prices realised. This rise lias steadily continued up to date, and 
the quantity exported from the 'Presidency in 1905-1906 (349,500 
cwts.) was 45 per cent higher than the figure for 1900-01 and 
the value (171 lakhs) greater than in any year, except one, since 
i895-96. 



Aoxrcui/rujiJs, 



V 



It is only Isowovfr bv rigid economy awl rousiant fun? thnt 
collec estates now pay, and the ind tiblry is, in anything bu' a 
flouri&liing condition. Srt»pi-s of plantations in the Wyimad haw, 
heen entirely abandoned and relapsed into jungly and orber* 
a>ro in "the hands of native who merely pick such crop as tiir 
trues wiiJ give with tin; minimum of cultivation- 

OE t-lin GO sporics into which the genua Cojf'w is divided onk 
two are of importance; mnimly Cop-it Arahim and <'. Tnhr, ' !r -<i. 
The latter, a native of Liberia, is the more vigorous in growth 
of tbo two, attains a gn>a-W r-i/e and age, withstands wid**r 
oxtremow of climati*, was once (but wrongly > supposed fu Ik.- 
)&s& affected by disease, but produces a coarser- flavoured CuJfee. 
The former is the plant now grown, Siberian being no longer In 
favour, 

' Its foliage r&sembhif} that of the Portugal laurel ; the rami), 
white blossom is not anlike tliar nf tliB jofe$aii"iino in form and .■sc^ut : 
the berries are at first dark-green, changing, aa they mature, to 
yellow, red. and, finally, deep crimson. Beneath the akin of the dpi,- 
berry, or "cherry" as it is called, is ;s mucilaginous, wiccharim', 
glutinous " pulp," closely enveloping the ,; beans," usually a pair of 
oval, plano-convex seeds, though sometimes there is but one seed, 
called, from its shape, [> pea-berry ; " dies© beans tive coated with a 
cartilaginous membrane, known as i! parchment, " and beneath thifs hy 
a very delicate, semiisransparent. closely-adhering jacket, termed flit* 
" silverakm ".' 

Begardiug tho cultivation oi coffee a very considerable 
literature exists 1 and maoy divergent opinions regarding pruning, 
manuring and so on are held. Discussion of these points would 
be out of place in a book like the present". 

The ' lieeming system/ so called from its warm advocate 
Mr, H. W. Leeming of the Shevaroy Hills, has lately been tried 
extensively and, in some places, with much saccess. This consists 
in leaTing the coffee trees to grow freely, without any pruamg, 
to their natural shape and reducing the number per acre to 
gh'etkem plenty ol room. It has the advantage of saving all 
the expense of pruning. 

Manures are almost universally employed in large quantities. 
Crude and refined saltpetre, pooiiaes (such as castor, nim and 
pungm) and also imported and artificial manures like bask 
slag, superphosphates, bone-dust and so on are all widely used • 
and the planters are now agitating for legislation to provide for- 

' A useful primer is Gojjes , <tt* culture and commerce, edited hy C, 0-. 
WMnford Look, p. I,, S. (IS. and F. N. Spaa, 125 Strand, 1888), which contiin* 
* bibliography. 



174 



THE CTLfitXBXS. 



Spkcial 
products. 



the standardization of the latter and Cor their sale under guaran- 
tees of their composition. 

Almost all the labour on coffee (and alsu on tea and other) 
estates is imported ; and in 1908, on the motion of some of the 
planters in this and other districts who considered that the 
existing Act XIII o.f 1859 was inadequate to secure control 
over defaulting labour contractors and absconding coolies, the 
Madras Planters Labour Act I of 1003 was passed into law and 
now applies to the Nilgiris. The enactment had been draftad 
by a special committee which included a planter deputed for the 
purpose by the Planting Associations, but it has not found 
favour with employers of labour and its amendment is already 
under consideration. 

Passing allusion has already been made to the diseases and 
pests which have so disastrously affected the co^ee industry. 
The three worst of these are commonly called bug, borer and 
leaf-disease. 

The first to attack the coffee trees was the ( black ' or ( scaly ' 
bug, which is known to science as tecanium coffece. The female 
of this pest resembles a brown conical scale and adheres to a 
young shoot or the under side of a leaf. She produces hundreds 
of eggs and these are so small that they are easily carried from 
tree to tree by adhering to birds, clothing or animals. The male 
of the insect does not derive any nourishment from the tree, but 
the female has a proboscis with which she incises the bark 
and drinks the sap. As the insects increase in numbers the 
foliage is destroyed, a sugary substance, called the honey-dew, 
appears on the plant and a black fungus covers the whole of it, 
making it look as if it had been powdered with soot. The 
leaves fall off and the plant is starved and produces no fruit. 

This pest appeared in Ceylon as early aa 1845 and caused a 
great deal of alarm in 1847, It prevailed for a long time., 
appearing and disappearing in the most uncertain and perplex- 
ing manner. No real remedy has ever been discovered for it, 
though constant weeding and pruning did good by allowing sun 
and air free access to the trees, but it was found to wear itself 
out gradually. It has lately re-appeared in the estates round 
&6tagiri and below Coonoor and is causing much anxiety, 

The ' white ' or ( mealy ' bug is a different pest, and is 
called Pseudocooous Adonidum. It is a small, Sat, oval scale 
about a sixteenth of an inch long which is covered with white 
down and has parallel ridges running across its back from side to 
side something like a wood-louse. It takes up its quarters on 



AGKICITLTUBB. 



175 



the roots of the trees, at tlie axils of the leaves, and among the 
stalks of the fruit clusters, which it outs off wholesale while they 
are still young. The green, berries lying under the trees are 
often the first indication o£ its presence. 

The green hug, Leecmium viride, is another of these scale 
pests and has lately appeared in strength on the Nilgiris. No 
remedy short of the expensive processes of cutting out diseased 
■ trees, or spraying or fumigating them, has been discovered. It 
has "been suggested that parasites which are known to attack it 
elsewhere, or other insects which feed upon it, might be intro- 
duced to keep it in check ; hut Mr. Maxwell Lefroy, Entomolo- 
gist to the Government of India, considers that all experience 
goes to show that such endeavours are usually complete 
failures. 

After the black hug came the i borer,' Xyhtreckus quadrupes. 
This is a beautiful insect about seven-tenths of an inch long and 
nine-tenths across the wings. The full-grown larva is about au 
inch in length, pale yellow or white in colour, with a hard head 
armed with very powerful mandibles. It bores its way into the 
heart-wood of the plant and tunnels along it, eventually killing 
the tree. It was the most troublesome of all the South Indian 
pests and in 1865-66 destroyed whole estates in Coorg and 
the Wynaad. In 1867 Surgeon-Major Bidie was deputed by 
Government to investigate its ravages in the Wynaad. It was 
then noticed that the insect seldom laid its eggs in shady places 
and that when it did they did not hatch readily. Planters there- 
fore began to put quick-growing trees (such as Qrevillea robmta) 
among their coffee to create artificial shade, and since this has 
been done much less has been heard of this pest A similar bat 
distinct insect does harm in the gardens in Gotacamnnd by 
boring into the roots and stems of woody plants such as fuchsias, 
arbutilon and so on. 

Leaf-disease followed the borer. It is a fungus,, known to 
scientists as Semehia waialrix^ which begins its attacks on the 
under side of the leaves of the coffee tree, causing spots or 
blotches which are at first yellow and afterwards black and are 
covered with a pale orange dust which easily rubs off. They 
increase in siae until the leaf dies and drops off and the tree is 
thus starved and produces no fruit. The spores are readily 
carried about from tree to tree for long distances by the wind, 
and the disease thus spreads with rapidity. It w^s first noticed 
in Ceylon in 18b'9 and in India about 1871 ; and by 1S75 it had 
devastated whole districts. 



CHAP. IV 
Special 
Products 



176 



THE NILGXK1S. 



CHAP. IV. 

Special 



Processes of 
manufacture 



Other pests and diseases, such as the coffee rat which gnaws 
off the branches and the leaf-rot which makes the leaves and 
some of the berries turn "black and drop off, have also appeared ; 
"but their ravages are not to be compared with those of the, bugSj 
the borer and the leaf-disease. Plantations on the Nilgiri 
plateau, have generally speaking suffered less from all of these 
enemies than those in the "Wynaad, but few can boast of 
complete exemption. 

To those who have never seen a coffee- estate or coffee-curing 
works a few words descriptive of the processes necessary to 
produce the brown bean of the breakfast-table from the i cherry 3 
of the plantation may be of interest. 

When the cherry is quite ripe it is picked by hand and taken 
in the evening to the ! pulping-honse.' This is usually built in 
three stages or storeys, one above the other, and is so placed 
that a stream of water can be led to it both to drive the ( pulper ' 
and to wash the berry in the processes below referred to. The 
cherry coffee is deposited in the upper storey and carried thence 
to the pulper by water running down a trough. The duty of 
the pulper is to remove the pulp which, as above described, 
envelopes the beans. Several patterns are in use. A common 
variety consists of a metal cylinder surrounded with a sheet of 
copper dotted with a number of small iuiohs raised with a punch 
(like the roughnesses on a grater), which is revolved at a high 
speed close to a horizontal bar of iron provided with a cutting- 
edge. The cherry and the runnel of water which bears it along 
fall together on to the cylinder from a hopper, and the former is 
. caught by the copper knobs and forced between them and the 
iron bar. The distance between these two is so graduated that 
no cherry can pass through whole ; and the pulp is thus squeezed 
and torn off the beans and passes out one way, while the beans 
(which are now known as f parchment coffee ') are washed out 
another way by the stream of water. 

The parchment coffee is carried down to the third, or lowest, 
stage of the pulping-house and into cemented tanks placed there 
to receive it. It is still covered with much mucilaginous matter, 
beneath which is the parchment membrane and, inside that 
again, the ( silverskui.' It is left in the tanks until the mucila- 
ginous slime has fermented sufficiently to come away without 
troxible and is then transferred to washing tanks in which it is 
frequently stirred with rakes. The slime, any pulp that has been 
carried down, other refuse and all light beans then float to the 
ton and are skimmed off, while the good beans s*re washed cleau 



Pboducts. 



AGRICULTURE. 177 

and sink to the "bottom. They are next drained and are finally CHAP. IV. 
dried on open-air cement or asphalt platforms (called barbecues) Special 
or on c drying-tables ' made of coir matting laid on wooden 
supports. 

"Wl&n thoroughly dried, tlio parchment is sent down to the 
plains (to Coimbatore and Calicut) to be ( cured s and cleaned 
of its parchment and silversldn. by the firms (often called ' coast 
agents ') which make a speciality of this work. The processes 
are more easily effected in a dry and warm atmosphere, and 
moreover require special machinery and buildings which it would 
not be worth while to ei'ect on each separate estate and special 
experience to bring- the sample up to the best standard of which 
it is capable. The pilfering to which the coffee used to be 
subject on its way down to the curing works is referred to on 
p. 293 below. 

It is found that the bean retains its colour better if it is 
left for some weeks in the parchment, and this is called curing. 
At the same time protracted curing increases the difficulty of 
removing the silversldn. The removal of the parchment and 
silversldn is called 'hulling' or 'peeling' and is effected by 
warming the cured coffee in the sun and then passing it through 
a machine similar to that used for making mortal' and consisting" 
of two large rollers which are revolved round, and near the bottom 
of, a circular iron pan. These rollers squeeze and i ub off both the 
parchment and silversldn and the latter aro then winnowed off 
and the beans are left- 

To render subsequent roasting more uniform, the beans are 
next sorted into sizes by a ' separator.-* This generally consists 
of a cylindrical, horizontal revolving sieve with meshes which 
gradually increase in size from one end of it to the other. The 
beans are fed in at the end where the meshes are smallest and 
carried right along the separator by a revolving worm inside it. 
Dust and dirt are first eliminated and fall into one receptacle ; 
then the small and broken beans, which drop into another ; then 
the next two sizes of beans ; and last the peabeny. Finally the 
different grades wq 'garbled' by women with native winnowing 
fans, and broken or discoloured beans are removed. The finished 
article is pent to England or France in air-tight casks. 

Of the tea exported from India only a very small quantity is 
grown in South India, and even of this latter amount the propor- 
tion raised in the Nilgiris is at present less than one-half per cent. 
The area under tea in the district is reported to be about 8,000 
acres, but these figures, like those for coffee, require to be accepted 
83 



178 



THE NILGIMS. 



OHA.P. IV. 

Special 
Products, 



lis first; 
introduction. 



with reserve since planters are irregular in sending in their 
returns. The area is undoubtedly increasing rapidly, however, as 
tea is loss liable than coffee to diseases and pests and its price hag 
not yet suffered to the same extent from over-production-, so that 
in many cases it has been, planted on estates on which co€eo had 
proved a failure. 

The history of the cultivation of tea in the district dates from 
1833. Assistant-Surgeon Christie had noticed that a Camelia, 
which was known to eesemble its cousin the tea-plant in its tastes, 
grew abundantly near Coonoor, and ho therefore ordered some 
tea-plants from China. He died before they arrived, but 
the plants were distributed to various parts of the hills for 
trial. 1 In 1885s orac plants raised from seed brought from 
China by the secretary of a committee appointed by the then 
Governor-General to consider means to introduce tea-cultivation 
in India were sent from Calcutta to the Kilgiris — and also to 
Ooorg, Mysore and Madras. Those sent to the Nilgiris wore 
chiefly planted out at the Keti experimental farm referred to 
below. When this was closed in 1836 and its buildings were 
lent to the Governor of Pondicherry as a residence, (see p. 331), 
M. Pcrrottet the French botanist found that the plants had been, 
half-buried by ignorant gardeners and were consequently in a 
very bad state. Flo uncovered them and caved for thorn, and by 
October 1838 they had grown to four feet in height, and were 
loaded with flowers, fruit and healthy young leaves. He puh» 
lished an account of them 2 which attracted attention and in 
1840 samples of ITilgiri tea made from plants growing at K4ii 
and Billikal were sent by Mr. J. Sullivan to the Madras Agri- 
horticultural Society. The leaves had been withered in the open 
and fired in a frying-pan for want of better means, but the tea was 
pronounced excellent }jy the enthusiasts who tasted it. 3 

Later Mr. Mann of Coonoor succeeded in making really fair 
tea from the Hilgiri plants and was thus encouraged to get more 
seed. He procured a supply from the finest plantations in China 
early in 1854., and after many difficulties put them down in the 
piece of land near Coonoor which is now known as the Coonoor 
Tea Estate. As early as 1856 the tea made from these plants was 
favourably reported upon by .the London brokers, but Mr. Mann 

1 Bailee's Neilgherries (1st edition), 37. 

• This will bo found in The Fm t Si. George Gazette of 10th April 1S39 anil also 
at the onS «i* Mr. Kobflr ban's report of 1875 on the agricultural oomUtione of 
this district, 

3 Abiaih lowml, sixii (1840), 23,320. 



AGtBIOULTTHlX, 179 

■was so disheartened by the difficulty of procuring- forest land to CHAP. IT. 
extend his operations that he eventually gave up the experiment. 1 Special 
Dr. Cleg-horn., Conservator of Forests., noticed later on how __„_' " 
well the trees were seeding and endeavoured to induce Government 
to form a nursery from this seed and to import a trained Chinese 
tea-maker or two from the Worth-West Provinces. But Sir 
Charles Trevelyan, then Governor of Madras, in a characteristic 
minute strongly deprecated State intervention in the matter and 
the 'morbid habit of dependence upon Grovernment, which in 
some communities has amounted to a moral paralysis.' 

About the same time as Mr. Mann formed his plantation at 
Coonoor, Mr. Eao obtained a grant of land near Sholur, now 
known as the Dunsandle Estate, for growing tea ; shortly after- 
wards a garden was begun at Kotagiri ; and in 1863 the estate 
known as Belmont was formed on the Bishopsdown property at 
Ootacamnnd. 

During Sir William Denieon's governorship some direct aid 
was afforded to the new industry in 1863 and 3 SGI by bringing 
down tea-makers from the North-West Provinces, distributing 
gratuitously a stock of seed also obtained from thence, and 
forming a small nursery within the cinchona plantations at Boda- 
hetta ; but none of these steps effected much good and the tea- 
planters worked out their own salvation 1-jy their own energy. 

By the end. of 1869 some 200 or 300 acres had been planted qaent 
with tea and at the Qotacamund agricultural exhibition in that extension, 
year no less than eighteen planters showed samples of their 
produce. At the suggestion of Mr. Breeks, Commissioner of the 
'.Nilgiria, some ot these were sent Home by Government for the 
opinion of the brokers, and many of them were pronounced good 
and some very good, their value ranging from Is. 4<K to 6s, per 
pound. 

Since then the output has steadily increased year by year, 
notwithstanding- a corresponding gradual decrease in the prices 
realized, which are now less than half what they were in the 
seventies. 

Efforts are being made to create a market for tea among 
natives of India, which, if established, would free the growers from 
the heavy middlemen's charges which absorb so much of the profits 
on this and other produce disposed of through Mincing Lane. 
From the 1st April 1903 a compulsory customs cess of one quarter 
of a pie per pound on all tea exported from India was imposed by 

1 District Manual, 511* 



Products, 



180 'I'ilE NtJ-GiRIS. 

CHAP, if- law and tlio proceeds of this are handed oyer to a Tea Cess 
Special Committee to "be expended in pushing tho sale and increasing the 
consumption of tea ontside tho United Kingdom. 
3 o£ The tea plant is botanicaily a. Camelia, and its blossom closely 

manufacture. j>esenibles that of the ordinary single white Camelia and has a 
similar scent. Three varieties are grown. First there is the pure 
China tea, the chief merit of -which is its hardiness ; then, the 
indigenous Assam sort, which in its natural habitat is a forest tree 
growing to a height of 25 or 30 feet ; and lastly tho hybrid 
between these two, which is the most useful and generally grown 
of the three. This produces twice as much„leaf as the pure China, 
and yet possesses a great deal of the letter's hardiness. 

The cultivation and manufacture of tea- are subjects on which 
much has been written l and the details of which are quite ontside 
the scope of this present volume. A few words may however bo 
said regarding the processes through "which the leaf passes from 
the time when it is plucked until it is duly packed in its lead-lined 
chest. 

Sack of the leaves of the shoot of a tea plant is known by a 
technical name. The bud at the extreme end is called the tip or 
flowery pekoe ; the two nest to it orange pekoe .; the two next 
souchong; and the next two, the largest of the series, congou. 
When a s flush/ or burst of young green leaf, occurs on tho estate 
these (or, if c iine plucking ' is required, the bud and the first two) 
are all plucked together by women and children. They are not 
kept separately then, but are sifted afterwards by machinery. 
The leaves are plucked into baskets and carried the same day to 
the tea factory. Unlike coffee, tea cannot be partly manufactured 
on the estate and partly afterwards elsewhere, and every plantation 
must therefore either possess its own tea-making plant or be 
near enough to some other estate which is equipped with tho 
necessary machinery and is willing to make a neighbour's leaf into 
tea for a consideration, Thus much outlay in buildings and 
machinery is usually required for starting a tea-estate ; and tea- 
planting has the further disadvantage when compared with 
coffee-growing that manufacture is going on almost all the year 
round; whereas the coffee-planter enjoys comparative peace 
and quiet except at that one period of the year when his crop is 
coming in. 

Having beon taken to the tea-house, tho leaf is c withered > by 
being spread thinly on shelves o£ some material and left there 
until it can be rolled between the fingers without breaking, 

' A useful Iiandboolc is The Taa nanlw'* Mamml hy T. C. Owon (Fcrffwioit, 
polonibo, 1SSG). 



AGRICULTURE. 



181 



Like almost every other process in tea-makiug, this stage CHAP. IV, 
requires to he timed with care and experience. If the leaf is SracuL 
not sufficiently withered it will break when ' rolled J as (Inscribed Fil0DUCTB - 
below, while if it is left to wither too long the quality of the 
( Ikpfor ' made fi'om it is inferior. 

When the withering is complete the leaf is taken to he rolled. 
This is done in machines consisting of two horizontal "brass- 
faced plates placed one above the other like the atones in a mill, 
which are rapidly revolved by steam with an eccentric motion. 
This rolling, again, requires to he timed to a nicety or subsequent 
processes are adversely affected. The smaller leaves naturally 
roll quickest, so to secure evenness in the rolling and subsequent 
fermenting (see below) the leaf is next usually sifted and the 
bigger leaf rolled a second time. When the rolling is complete 
the leaf is laid out in a thin layer in a darkened and moist room 
and left to ferment. This process requires perhaps more careful 
watching than any other, the time required to complete it dif- 
fering with the size of the leaf, the elevation;, and the humidity 
and warmth of the atmosphere. The point at which the process 
is complete is judged partly by the smell, and partly by the 
colour, of the leaf, It should bo a bright copper colour. The 
moment this stage has arrived fermentation must) be stopped by 
' firing ' or roasting the leaf. This is effected by scattering it in 
very thin layers on shallow wire trays and placing the latter in 
a machine called a c sirocco/ in which hot air from a charcoal 
fire is drawn over ami between the trays by a fan. This firing 
changes the leaf into the usual black tea of the shops. This 
operation again requires extreme care. Any tea which has been 
burnt by overfiiing makes a bittor { liquor;' and unless the 
overhring is detected at once before tho spoilt leaf is mixed with 
the rest of the c break/ a few ounces of this overfired leaf will 
ruin the flavour of many pounds of good tea. 

Next, tho fired tea is sifted by machinery. Different estates 
make different grades of tea^ but tho classes usually distinguished 
are orange pekoe, broken pekoe, pekoe, pekoe souchong, broken 
souchong and congou, which are named from tho nature of the 
leaves (see above) of which they consist. The largest leaves are 
then broken in a special machine which cuts them into neat 
pieces. 

The tea is finally stored in bins until ib is ready to be packed. 
To make sure that it is absolutely dry and will not get musty in 
transit., it is generally given a final firing just before being 
placed in its lead-lined chest. Well-equipped tea-factories 



182 



THE BILGIIIIS. 



CHAP, TV. 

Sl'lXIAL 
PRODUCT-*. 



J(,s intrudm 
fcion. 



possess an ingenious machine for packing. This consists of a 
little table, big enough to carry a chest, which is vibrated 
rapidly by machinery. The chest is placed ou this and the 
vibrations shake the tea evenly and tightly down into all the 
corners. 

The cinchona tree, it, its perhaps hardly necessary to state, is 
cultivated for the sake of the quinine and allied alkaloids which 
arc yielded by its bark and which are the basis of all remedies 
for malaria. The total area planted with cinchona in the district 
is at present only some 2,000 acres (the greater pai't of which is 
situated in the Ootaenmund taluk) but the former importance of 
the industry and the share which Government take in it with 
the object of pi'oviding cheap qumine for the masses justify some 
account of its history in the past and its existing position. 

The cinchonas, of "which there are numerous species, are 
natives of South America. If is an unsettled point -whether the 
virtues of quinine were known to the Indians there before the 
arrival of the Spaniards, but the fact that quinine is a corruption 
of the Indian word ' quina-quina/ or ( bark of barks/ raises the 
inference that t\ej were. To the Countess of Ohinchon, the 
-wife of a Viceroy of Peru, and her Jesuit friends is the world 
indebted for the introduction into Europe, in 1840., of this 
inestimable febrifuge. It was long known as c Conntess 5 
powder,'' ' Jesuit's bark' and ' Cardinal's bark ;' and hence arose 
the early prejudices of Protestants against its use. 

A century elapsed before the genus of the quina-quiiia tree 
was established by the famous botanist Linneeus in 1742. He 
paid a just tribute to the Countess' memory by calling it after her ; 
and his successors have extended the name to the very numerous 
allied plants which are comprised in the natural order Cinchona- 
eesfi and include many of the most valuable remedial agents known 
to medical science- 
It was not until 1848 thai the first cinchona plants were 
grown in Europe. They warn raised from some seed of C. calimya 
despatched to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris hy Br. Weddell in 
that year; and one of them was sent to Java and became the 
first plant ever grown there and the author of a numerous 
progeny. Fear had long been felt that the wanton destruction 
of the cinchona trees by the bark-collectors in South America 
would eventually result in the destruction or serious restriction 
of the supply of quinine from thence, and the importance of 
introducing the plant into other countries became generally 
acknowledged — especially by the English and the Dutch, who 
.owing to their eastern possessions were the chief consumers. 



AGRICUT/HJBE. 183 

The "French Government made an unsuccessful attempt in CHAP. Iy. 
I860 to introduce the plant into Algeria ; and it was the Specml 

Dutch who first took the matter seriously in hand. In 1852 a » om: iis. 

"botanist was deputed by them to collect in South America plants 
and seeds of the more valuable varieties and convey thorn to Java, 
and two years later Lis mission was accomplished. The species 
he collected were mostly worthless, however, and it was not until 
1861- that the enterprise began to be satisfactorily conducted. 
As will he seen further on, Java now controls the world's market- 
In British India the importance of action had long been urged 
on the authorities. As early as 1835 Dr. Porhcs Rojie, then 
Superintendent of the Gardens at Saluiranpui', had suggested the 
introduction of cinchona on the Khasia and Nilgiri hills ; and he 
continued to press the point for many years. At length, in 1852, 
Lord Dalhousie, then Grovornor-Oeneral, suggested to the Court 
of Directors that some one should be deputed to South America 
to collect plants and seeds. Dr. Forbes Iloyle, who was now 
employed at the India House, supported the recommendation: 
but all that was done was to obtain some plants; all of which 
died on the voyage, through the Consular Agents. Undefeated^ 
Dr. Boyle again brought the matter forward in 1850 and 1857, 
and at length the Directors (perhaps influenced by the fact that 
the Indian Government were now spending nearly £10^000 per 
annum on quinine and cinchona hark) agreed to despatch a 
botanist-collector to South America. Mr. (afterwards Sir Cle- 
ments) Markham, who was then a clerk in the India Office and 
was well acquainted with the Cordilleras (whore cinchonas 
abounded) and the dialects spoken there, volunteered in 1859 to 
superintend the work and Mb services were accepted. 

Accompanied by four assistants, he reached Peru in January 
1860 and arrived on the Nil girls m October of the same year 
■with a number of plants of O. calisayrt and some of inferior 
varieties, all of which eventually died. Tn April of the following 
year "Mr. Cross, one oS: his assistants, reached Ootacamund with 
a stock of O. meeirubra plants and a few calisaya ; later on two 
others of his assistants sent seeds of miemnfhet, nithla, Peruviana, 
Oondaminea and crisjm ; and in 186<S Mr. Cross despatched seeds 
and a few plants of luneifolia, and Ptta-t/msh: 

Previous to Mr. Markham's arrival in October 1860, Mr. W. G-. skurcniraim* 
McXvor (an expert horticulturist, trained at K&w, tvIio had been in P^te* 1 ™!' 1 

,-7 boson. 

charge of the Grovemmenfc Gardens at Ootacanmnd since 1 848) had 
selected as a site for the cinchona plantations the wooded .ravine 



184 THE HtLGIBIS. 

CHAI\ IV. on Podabetta abovo the Government G-artlens whore the Doda- 
St'BctAr. betta plantation now stands; but Mr. Markham thought that, 

' though this would suit the varieties which grew at high elevations 

in South America, the species requiring & warm and moist climate 
would hardly do well there, and he selected for these latter the 
site of the present Grovernment plantations at Nadnvattam on the 
western edge of the plateau. In 1 S(">2 Government also approved 
Mr. Mclvor's choice of the two wooded slopes on either side of 
the Paikiira waterfall which were afterwards known respectively 
as the Wood and [looker plantations after 8ir Charles Wood, 
then Secretary of State, and the famous botanist. In 1863 the 
opening of a plantation called Stanley at Melkunduh, on the 
southern edge of the ICundahs, was also sanctioned. The 
cultivation of thisj it may here he noted, was stopped in 1871, but 
the trees were left standing in order to ascertain whether they 
would flourish if left to themselves. They wore speedily choked 
with jungle and the estate is now a ruin, 1 

These estates were only very gradually planted up. In 
1802, SI acres were opened at Nadnvattam ; in 1863 planting- 
op. the Dodabetta and "Wood properties was "begun, and 
iSTadnvattam was slightly extended ; and apparently it was not 
until 1888 that the first planting was done on the Hooker estate. 
By that year cinchona seems to have been put down on a total 
of 355 acres in the four estates, but the official figures are con- 
flicting and unreliable. Labour was so scarce that much of the 
work was done by convict lahonr ; and the natives still call the 
Grovernment plantations the 'Jail totes' and the old maps mark 
the sites of the temporary prisons in which the convicts were 
confined. Some of these men were Chinese who had been sent 
over to Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where prison 
accommodation was scarce) and when their sentences expired a 
few of them settled down with Tamil wives at Naduvattam in a 
spot now known as 'the Chinese village,' where they subsist as 
market -garden era and dairymen. 

The objects to be kept in view in these experiments with 
cinchona were described as follows by the Secretary of State : — 

' The two iiret objects of the experiment are the provision of an 
abundant and certain supply of, bark for the use of hospitals and 

1 Interesting particulars regarding the beginnings of the experiments with 
cinchona will be found in the Parliamentary Blue Books on the subject published 
in 1863, 1866, 1870 and 1876. The qnioology of the Eaet Indian plantations has 
been eEhBtt8ti-?ely dent;; with by Mr. J. E, Howard and details regarding: the 
cultivation of cinchona are to bo found in the works of Sir Goor^o King-, W. G, 
JJoIvor, J. 0. Owen, Van Oorkom ai)d Moons, 



ASHIGULTTJBE. 185 

troops, and the spread of cultivation through the Mil dibtricts in order CHAP. IV. 
to bring; the remedy within the reach of the frequenters of jungles Special 
and oi' the native population generally. Your Government has very I'kotwcts. 
justly deemed that the experiment cannot be regarded as a mere 
mon&y-speculationj nor axe the commercial advantages that may be 
derived from it to be considered as other than a secondary consider- 
ation, though, oi course, a return of the outlay and the spread of 
cinchona oaltivation by private en.terpr.ize are very desirable in them- 
selves. ' ' 

Barks from the Nilgiri trees were sent to England for analysis The first 
as early as practicable, and as they showed that Indian cultivated feb " f "? e 
cinchona would successfully yield the quinine and other alkaloids 
desired; the Secretary of State appointed., in 1866, Mr. John 
Broughton, B.Sc, I\O.S., an Assistant at the Boyal Institu- 
tion, as Government Quinologist to investigate on the spot the 
various questions which had arisen regarding the cultivation of 
the tree and the extraction and use of its alkaloids, and especially 
the best and cheapest way of preparing an efficient febrifuge for 
use among the poorest classes of the native population, in the 
hospitals, and by the troops. 

After numerous experiments extending oyer four years Mr. 
Bronghton adopted as the best febrifuge a combination of 
alkaloids which was called i amorphous quinine/ It was manu- 
factured for three years ; but doubts having been thrown upon 
its efficacy and its cost being actually higher than imported 
quinine, Government in 1874 resolved to cease making it and Mr, 
Broughton resigned his appointment, which was then abolished. 

All this time the cultivation of the Government estates bad Changes in 
been under the charge of Mr. Hclvor, who was designated ^™ in!atta " 
Superintendent of the Cinchona Plantations and remained in 
charge of them until his death in 1876. Prom that year to 1880 
the estates were directly under the Commissioner of the Nilgiris ; 
and from February 1881 they were placed under the care of the 
Forest department. Practi- 

ACEM ' caliv the whole of the 

PodalK-'tfa. 314-02 tit j. i , , 

A'aduTOttnm 303-68 h&lck harvested was sent to 

Wood 72-18 England or sold locally by 

Hooker .. ... 151-lti auction, and quinine m&nu- 

facfmre by Government was 
Tctal '" Sia '° 2 in abeyance. The extent 
cultivated, in the various es- 
tates (according to a survey made in 1878) was 843 acres distri- 
buted among them, as shown in the margin. 

1 Blue Book, Vol. ?', -oagft 255. 
U 



186 



TEE SriliSIRlS. 



CEIAP. IT. 
Special 



3?rivato 
planting of 
cinchona. 



Work on the 
Government 
plantations at 
present. 



In June 1883 Mr. M. A. Lawson, who had been sent out from 
England, "became Government Botanist and Director of the 
Government Cinchona Plantations, Parks and Gardens ; and in 
1884 the appointment of Government Quinologist was revived 
and Mr. D. Hooper appointed thereto. 

Meanwhile the extremely high price of quinine (wholesale, 
£9-12-0 per pound in 1878 against 12-s. per pound in 1906) and 
the damage which had in so many cases been caused on coffee 
estates "by pests and diseases had induced a number of the 
planters on the hills to take to the cultivation of oinohona ; and 
a flourishing private industry arose of which the highest hopes 
were entertained. It first started in 1867, and "by 1884 4,000 
acres of private cinchona plantations had been opened and the 
outturn of bark on these was put at 243,000 lb. against the 
116,000 lb. in the Government estates. For reasons similar to 
those already given in the case of coffee and tea, the statistics of 
cultivation and output are not reliable, but apparently they 
reached a maximum in 1888-S9. The average price of quinine 
in London (wbioh in 1881-82 had been 10-s. 3d* an ounce and in 
1884-85, 7s.) had by then, fallen to 2s. owing to over-production 
in Ceylon and Java, and cinchona-growing ceased to be a pro- 
fitable investment. Its extension has long entirely ceased, 
though owners of estates planted in the prosperous days still con- 
tinue to collect and sell the bark of such trees as have not been 
dag up to mo-ke room for more paying products. About the 
same time (1888-89) as the industry began to decline on tho 
Nilgiris, Ceylon planters also began to abandon cinchona-growing; 
and the world's market is now controlled by Java, which pro- 
duces about 800,000 lb. out of the total annual consumption of 
one million lb. of quinine. 

To revert to the operations in the Government plantations on 
the Hugiris. "With the appointment of Mr. Hooper in 1884, 
local manufacture begau again. The production of a mixture of 
the cinchona alkaloids was at once undertaken, and in 1889 the 
Naduvattam factory was established and the first sulphate of 
quinine was made. 

In 1896 the post of Government Quinologist was abolished, 
that of Government Botanist was made distinct from it, and the 
plantations were placed under a Director, who was required not 
only to attend to their cultivation but also to superintend opera- 
tions in the quinine factory at Naduvattam. 1 

- 1 The Director ao appointed was Mi*. W. M. Stau&en, who still holds t.he 
post. Ho has very kindly supplied moat of tlie material for this accomi** o£ 
cinchona. 



AGEICUITUBB. 



187 



Spew at. 
Peobucts. 



In 1901 new and improved machinery was installed in the 
factory which not only increased its capacity but almost halved 
the cost of production. The factory now treats the whole of the 
bark raised on the Government estates and, since 1897, also buys 
Jargeiy from private growers. The bark thus purchased is paid 
for at the prevailing London market rate in accordance with its 
richness in alkaloids as ascertained by analysis hy the Director, 
and the planter thus saves the cost of freight to England and all 
sale comraissionfj. As these amount to about one arm a per pound 
of bark and as during the nine years 1897 to 1905-06 n.o less 
than 2,387,000 lb. have thus been purchased, the planters have 
benefited by the arrangement to the extent of Es. 1,49,000, 

In 1905-06 the output of the factory was 16,800 lb. of sul- 
phate of quinine. The quinine made there is sent to the Medical 
DepSts at Madras and Bombay, to the Central Provinces, the 
United Provinces, Bajputana, Burma and to Kative States, as 
well as to local fund and municipal hospitals in this Presidency. 
In addition to this despatch in bulk, the drug is placed within 
the reach of the poorest classes all over the country by the well- 
known l pice-packet system, 5 -which was first started in 1892 and 
under which 7-grain doses are sold to the public for three pies 
apiece at all post-offices and certain revenue offices. In 1905-06, 
4,000 lb. of quinine were sold in this manner in Madras and 
other provinces and the constantly increasing demand sufficiently 
proves the success of the plan. The total sales of quinine at the 
Kaduvattam factory have risen from 234 lb. in 1889 to 1 7,446 lb. 
in 1905-06. Since the plantations were first established the 
receipts have exceeded the expenditure by no less than 15 lakhs. 

It has already been said that private cinchona cultivation is Maintenance! 
at its lowest ebb, and it is therefore necessary that Government °* &** supply 
should maintain sufficient trees to meet the increasing demand for 
quinine, in 1897 the area of the Grovernment plantations had 
fallen from the 843 acres of 1878 to 740 acres — partly owing to 
the closing (in 1895) of the Wood estate, which had never been 
successful, and partly to the abandonment of infeirior plots in the 
others. Grovernment therefore decided to open new land and 
directed that 80 acres should be planted annually for the next 15 
years so as to bring the extensions to 1,200 acres in all. By the 
end o? 1903, 440 acres had been opened in this manner; but the 
difficulty of finding sufficient suitable land in feke neighbourhood 
of the factory has prevented the completion of this project, and 
the present policy is to increase the yield by intensive rather than 
extensive cultivation. The existing estates are therefore being 



188 



THE NILGIBU. 



C5KAF. IV 
Special 
Products. 



The species 
of omehomt 
grown . 



Harvesting; 
of the bark. 



Manufacture 
of quinine. 



re-stocked from seed from selected trees which, have been proved 
"by analysis to yield a high, percentage of quinine. The bark of 
one tree (0. officinalis) in the Dodabetta estate gave as much a3 
13*90 per cent, of sulphate ol quinine. 

It remains to explain briefly the pi'oecsses followed in 
harvesting the bark and mauo.fi.io taring the sulphate. Of the 
numerous species of cinchona, officinalis has been proved to be 
the mast suitable on the Nilgiris. The bark of this is still known 
by the name ( crown ' bark which was originally given, it hecauso 
the officinalis barks from the Loxa region in South America 
were reserved in. the old days for the use of the royal family ol 
Spain. Suocirubm, which was formerly largely grown, on the 
Nilgiris, has now been given up because it yields a poor percentage 
oi! qiiinino ; but Hybrids between it and officinalis are still culti- 
vated as many of them, are rich in alkaloids and they are of a more 
robust habit than the pure officinalis. 

In harvesting the bark of the cinchona tour methods have 
been followed; namely, stripping, shaving, coppicing and uproot- 
ing. Stripping consisted in removing long, narrow, lengthwise 
strips of the bark at intervals round the tree, binding moss over 
the wound to accelerate the formation of fresh bark, and repeating 
the process as soon as the new bark had grown sufficiently. This 
system and shaving have long been given up in the Government 
plantations, as they were found to affect the health of the trees 
prejudicially ; and at present almost all the harvesting is done by 
coppicing, uprooting being resorted to only in the itase of old 
trees which are not likely to reproduce freely from stools. In 
the coppice system, the tree is cut down close to the ground in 
about its fifteenth year, and the bark is sliced. of? and dried in the 
smx or by artificial beat. 

All bark, however harvested, is treated in. the same manner in 
the factory. It is first reduced to a fine powder ma disintegrator ; 
is nest mixed with a solution of caustic soda ; and is then con- 
veyed to two large extractors each taking 1,000 lb. of bark, which 
are fitted with stirrers and steam, coils. Shale oil is ran into each 
extractor and the mixture of oil, hark and soda is well stirred 
while steam is let into the coils to maintain the temperature of 
the mass at about 100° C. The power required for driving the 
stirrers is supplied by a turbine, and two boilers are used to pro- 
vide the steam. After two hours' agitation the contents of the 
extractors are allowed to rest, and the bark and soda solution 
then settle at the bottom of the extractors while the oil rises to 
the surface. In. this first process the shale oil, which is a valuable 



Produc 



ASBICtJLl'TTSE, 189 

solvent, takes up the cinchona alkaloids in the bark. Thesw tfHAP. TV. 
alkaloids, which consist chiefly of quinine, cjnchonidine and cin- Social 
chonine, exist in the bark in the .form of qusnafces and cincho- 
tannates. As sails, they are insoluble in the ordinary solvent^ 
hut tli 5 caustic soda breaks up the combination with, the organic 
acids and leaves the alkaloids in a condition in. which they are 
soluble in shale oil. 

The oil, now charged with alkaloids, is ran into a, rectangular 
lead-lined dank at the bottom of which is a perforated coil for 
the admission <>£ compressed air. A hot solution of sulphuric 
ucid is led into this tank, and the oil and acid are well miser! by 
a strong current of convpressed air. After a short agitation tliu 
contents of the tank are allowed to rest, with the result that the 
acid solution settles at the bottom while the oil remains above. 
At this ytage the alkaloids have combined with the sulphuric acid 
to form acid salts which are in a state of solution in the acid 
liquor. The oil is now free from, alkaloids and is pumped into 
the extractors and u.3ed for a second washing or agitation with 
the bark, and finally for a third washing. After each period of 
agitation the oil is relieved of its alkaloids by admixture with, the 
hot sulphuric acid solution as above described. After the third 
agitation ali the alkaloids in the bark have been extracted ; and 
the bark itself is then, ran out as waste while the acid liquor, which. 
is highly charged with acid salts of the alkaloids, is filtered and 
ran. into a montejus, from which it is driven by compressed air 
to the boiling pans on the upper floor of the factory. 

There it is boiled and neutralized, and is then transferred to 
troughs for crystallization. The basic salts of quinine (with 
some cinchonidine) now crystallize oat when the liquor cools ; 
while the salts of einchonme remain in solution on account of their 
greater solubility. 

The contents of the troughs are nest run into a centrifugal 
machine which quickly drives off the mother liquor. This liquor, 
which contains sulphate of einohonino and some sulphate of cin- 
chonidine in solution, is led into a masonry tank where it is 
treated with an excess of fans tic soda with the result that the 
alkaloids are precipitated. These are filtered and dried. The 
crude quinine sulphate is taken from the basket of the centrifu- 
gal, is dissolved in boiling water, filtered., and recrystallized in 
shallow troughs. Tlie cinchouidine sulphate, being more soluble, 
remains ia solution while the quinine sulphate crystallizes out. 
The contents of the troughs are now put through the centrifugal, 
the pure quinine sulphate remaining in the basket of the centrifugal 



190 



THE MMKBIS. 



OH A P. IV. 

Special 
Products. 



Its introduc- 
tion. 



while the liquor which holds the cinchonidine sulphate and some 
quinine sulphate iu solution is run into a tank where it is treated 
with an excess of; caustic soda. The result is a precipitation oi 
the cinchonidine alkaioid with some quinine alkaloid. This 
'mixture of" alkaloids is subsequently treated with sulphuric acid, 
is "boiled and neutralized, and a small quantity of: quinine sulphate 
is recovered by fractional crystallization. The cinelionidine sul- 
phate which remains in solution after passing through the centri- 
fugal is precipiUitod with an excess of caustic soda. The cincho- 
nidine alkaloid is then collected and dried and mixed with the 
ciuchouine alkaloid. The mixture is known as cinchona febri- 
fuge. The quinine sulphate, which has been partially dried 
in the centrifugal, is removed to the drying room, where it is 
dried on trays until it contains the requisite amount oi moisture, 
which is about 15 per cent. It is then ready for packing* and 
distribution. 

It has been the practice for some years to give a pink colour 
to the G-ovem.tnen.ti quinine with a view to preventing its fraudu- 
lent sale. This colour is obtained by the use of eosin, a weak 
solution of which is run into the centrifugal while the quinine 
sulphate is being dried. 

Of the less important special products grown by European 
enterprise on the hills that which is at present attracting - the most 
attention, is rubber. 

Of the SO odd plants and trees which yield marketable rubber J 
three stand out above the others ; namely, (1) Heoea Br&siliensis t 
called Para rubber from the district round one of the mouths of 
the Arnason. in which it abounds, (2) Manihoi ghziomi, known as 
Oeara after a coastal province in Brazil where it flourishes, and 
(8) Cadiiloa elastiea, which is also a Central American tree. 

The first rubber trees planted in South India were apparently 
some Oeara* plants sent from Kew to the teak plantations at 
Nilambur in Malabar in October 1878. Some Para plants were 
received at the same plantations in June 1879 from the Botanic 
Gardens, Oeylon, and some Castilloa at about the same time. At 
the Government Gardens at Barliyar in this district stand Para 
and Castilloa trees which were planted in 1881 and are now five 
or six feet in girth one foot from the ground ; and at Plantation 

1 A conspectus o£ tbeao will be found in J. G. Mcintosh's translation of 
Seelijpuaim and Tori'ilhon's India, Rnhler and Guttapercha (Scott, Greenwood & 
Co., Lucfgafce Hill, 1903), which aleo contains o, bibliography of rubber occupying 
eleven closely-printed pages. The latest handbook on Paia rubber is Bevea 
Sranlmiais or pard ribbler by Herbert Wright [Ferguson, Colombo, 1006), 



AGRICULTURE, 191 

House, the late Mr. T. J. Ferguson's residence at Calicut, are chap. iv. 
some specimens of the three trees which were put clown about Special 
1879, PB ?!1 0IS ' 

About 1882 Mr. Colin Mackenzie and some others combined 
to open an experimental plantation of tea and Ceara" with experi- 
mental patches of Castilloa and Landolpliia fa West African 
rubber-yielding creeper) at Ingapoya in the Calicut taluk at the 
foot of the Tamarasseri ghat, but abandoned the undertaking' 
owing to the title to the land being defective. About the same 
time, following the lead of Ceylon, many of the Wynaad planters 
and at least one of those at Kotagiri tried Ceara" either in small 
plots or as shade among coffee. The distractions of the gold- 
mining boom, the discovery that Ceara actually killed any coftee 
growing under it, the reports from Ceylon that this tree's yield of 
rubber was variable and uncertain, the damage done to it by 
monkeys, pigs and porcupine, and the general ignorance of the 
best methods of tapping it, gradually led to the neglect of the 
experiment. Numbers of Ceara trees planted then are still 
standing (there are some fine specimens, for example, in some 
abandoned coffee at Cheppatodu near Cherambadi on the right of 
the road to Sultan's Battery) and several hundred in the Malabar 
Wynaad were recently tapped by an enterprising planter and 
yielded rubber which realized Gs. a pound. 

About 1S98 interest in rubber revived and Mr. A £r. Nichol- Extent now 
son planted some Para and Castilloa on his Hawthorne estate on P lan£ci ^ 
the Shevaroys and some more in 1902 on his (rlenbum property 
below K6tagiri. Many planters have lately put down trees (nearly 
all Par&) among their coffee or in small patches, and it is cal- 
culated that about 1,200 acres have thus been planted up in this 
district. In Cochin, the Anaimalais, and the Shevaroys somewhat 
similar areas have been planted out, m Malabar and on the Palms 
smaller extents, and in Travancore as much as 6,000 acres. The 
Hilgiris thus has no monopoly of the new industry in this part of 
India. The biggest venture to date in that district is that of the 
Glenrock Company at Fandatnr, which has just put down, on the 
lower part of its property 16,000 plants obtained from the 
Barliyar Gardens. 

Ttubber-producirtg trees yield a latex ? uon&isting chiefly o£ Harvesting, 
water and caoutchouc globules but containing small quantities 
of sugars, proteids, gums, resin and mineral matter, 'This is 
contained in definite ducts occurring throughout the plant and 
especially in the bark, from which latter alone is it usually 
extracted. Extraction is effected by cutting through the outer 
layers of the bark with special tapping-knives so constructed as 



103 



THU NILG1KI& 



f'UAi'. IV. to vender injury to tlie cambium impossible and collecting in tins 
Special the latex as it drips from the- incisions. The incisions are 
'aoryuCTs. gy-stematicallj and regularly made in the form of spirals running 
round the tree, herring-bone patterns, and so on, and the edges of 
them require to be continually carefully re-cut so that tlie latex 
cells may be re-opened and continue to flow. In this way the 
whole of tbe bark of a tree is in time removed and renewed. 
After collection, the rates is left to coagulate in shallow pans (or 
the process is accelerated by artificial means), the caoutchouc 
globules rising to the surface and forming a thin sheet of rubber 
which is known as ' biscuit ' or ' sheet ' rubber. These contain 
proteid matter which is apt to putrefy and spoil the rubber, and 
they have consequently to bo carefully washed and dried. Some- 
times this is effected by putting the rubber through a machine 
which cuts it up into small pieces, exposes these to a strong 
current of clean water-, and finally reunites them by pressure. 
The resultant product is known as c crepe ' rubber. ' Lace ' arid 
4 flake ; rubber 1 are other newer forms. 'Scrap' rubber is that 
which dries in and round the incisions made by the tapping 
knives and fails to Ml into the collecting tins. 

The whole subject of the cultivation of rubber trees is as yet 
m its infancy and it has still to he definitely ascertained what 
soils, climates and elevations will best suit the various varieties. 
Harvesting processes are similarly in the initial stages : as yet no 
really satisfactory tapping knife has been invented and widely 
different views prevail as to the b^st manner of tapping, the age 
at which it should be begun, and the frequency which is 
permissible. The best methods of preparing the rubber for the 
market- are even less settled as yet, and doubtless the nest few 
y~8ar3 will see gi'eat advances. Fortunately for South Indian 
planters, the whole subject is being most carefully and systemati- 
cally worked out in Ceylon. 
Rhea fibre. Between 1886 and 1888 an. experiment on a large scale with 

rhea (or ramie) fibre was made by the Indian Glenrock Company, 
About 400 acres were planted near Pandamr by the late Mr. 
•T. "W". Minchin and 200 on the plateau by Mr. H. P. Hodgson. 
The plant grew well and gave long, fine steins, but it was found 
impossible to produce either the ribbons or the clean fibre on a 
commercial scale with profit, and after considerable expenditure 
the experiment was abandoned. 
FauiMREBs English fruit-trees were imported to the Nilgiris almost as 
aw- .soon as the first Europeans had settled there ; but no systematic 
record survives of the varieties which were tried or of the success 
which each achieved. The following notes have kindly bees, 
written by Mr. 0eorge Oakes, who lias conducted numerous 



AGXICUIiTDHE. 193 

experiments at his estate Downbam near Kalhatti, in eonsulta- OHAP. IV, 
tion with Mr. diaries Gray, who is also making systematic trials Pruit-tbees, 
at his place Orohardene near Ooonoor. Papers on the subject by '"• 
General Morgan, Sii* Frederick Price and General Baker, all well 
known for their interest in it, will be found in the Proceeding's of 
the Nilgiri Agri-horticnltnral Society for March 1902. 

Apples and pears have perhaps received more attention than Apples, 
any other English fruit. Mr. John Davison, who was a gardener 
trained at Kew and at one time owned (Cray's Hotel at Coonoor, 
was one of the first to succeed with apples, and is said to have 
introduced the pippin which is now so commoa on the Mils and 
is quite acclimatized. The fruit of this is a handsome apple which 
frequently weighs over a pound and varies in colour from yellow 
streaked with red to a brilliant scarlet. Grafted on the crab 
stock it thrives vigorously and bears heavily in situations above 
5,000 feet in elevation. It is best grown in bosh form. 

Ooonoor, Kateri, K6tagiri, the slopes round Kalkatti and the 
higher parts of Ootacamund where frost does not settle all suit, 
apples well ; and excellent varieties have been raised by General 
Baker at Tudor Hall, General Morgan at Snowdon and Captain 
Prend, while the Badagas have also planted numerous patches of 
the pippin above mentioned. Almost all the apple orchards have, 
however, been attacked by that worst of foes the American aphis, 
which affects not only the branches but the roots as well and for 
which no real cure short of burning up the whole tree, root and 
stock, is known. This pest has killed out whole orchards and is so 
easily spread broadoast by the clothes of coolies working among the 
trees, by sambhar, by grafts from infected trees and even by fruit 
being hawked round, that fear of it now deters many from 
attempting apple-growing. Plants brought from England, where 
no proper precautions are taken to disinfect exported plants, 
are often infected when thoy arrive ; and the safest method is 
to obtain fresh stocks from Australia, with which a Government 
certificate testifying that the plants have been disinfected with 
hydrocyanic acid gas can always be obtained for a small fee. 
Owing to the difference in the Australian seasons these, moreover, 
arrive on the hills at a more suitable time and so ran fewer risks 
in becomiug established. 

Besides the American aphis, the only other disease from which 
apple trees greatly suffer is canker, which generally starts at the 
collar and is usually caused by excess of manure, by the roots 
getting down into a cold subsoil, or by the bark being 
injured by the careless use of the mamuti when weeding. It can 
be checked by cutting oat the diseased part and painting the 
85 



194 



THIS NILGJBIsS. 



OHAP. IV. wound, with grafting-wax or ordinary oil-paint. Su far the 
Fstut-tsbjss, codlin. moth has not reached the hills, bat the indiscriminate 

1 importation of trees from England may at any time result in its 

introduction. 

At Bownhans, Australian apples have been largely planted and 
do well, the best kinds being Margil, Devonshire Quarrenden, 
Adams' Pearmain and Ecklinville Seedling. The trees winter 
well from December to the end of February, are pruned and 
winter- sprayed in January and ripen their crop in July and 
August. Owing to the forcing climate, trees require root-pruning 
oftener than in England and summer pinching or stopping in 
July. In ordinarily good soil manure is hardly necessary, a 
mulching of burnt refuse, with a small quantity of well-rotted 
manure being sufficient. Apples do well as espaliers, since the 
fruit does not get blown ofii so much as on the standard or bush 
tree, the trees do not take up so much room, and they are more 
easily netted to keep ofi birds. 
Fears, Pears do as well as apples, but take longer to come into 

bearing. On the other hand they are very long-lived and (unless 
the frost cuts off the blossom) bear very regular crops. They do 
no good if grafted on the quince, and as imported trees are often 
so grafted the only way to remedy matters is to earth up the tree 
above the stock and induce the pear to send out roots. These 
will soon completely suppress the quince. The best stock for 
pears of any variety is the Ohina pear 3 which is generally known 
on the Nilgiris as ( the country pear.' Cuttings from this will 
"be sufficiently rooted in twelve months to be budded or grafted. 
The best season for these operations is January or February, 

Pears do best on a rather heavy soil, but this must be well 
drained. They are very impatient of drought, and as soon as 
growth hegins in February the roots should be mulched over with 
long manure or bracken and kept moist. The most successful 
variety at Downham has been the Jargonelle grown as a standard 
or bush tree. It blossoms in January and the fruit ripens in 
May and June. There are a few trees of Williams' Bon Chretien 
in old Ooty which bear well. This is a large pear and very 
highly flavoured, but like the Jargonelle it does not keep well. 
A pear known as the lieiffer or Bartlett, which is grown very 
largely in America for canning, has lately been introduced from 
Saharanpur. It is very vigorous and gives early and regular 
- crops. The fruit is not unlike the Bon Chretien- Grafted or 
budded on the Ohina pear it fruits in the second or third year. 
Pitmastou Duchess, Louise Bonne of Jersey and Beurre Dlel, all 
imported from Au$tralia } promise well at Bownham. They are 



now in their third year and are from 7 to 10 feet high and winter CHAP TV. 
regularly from December to March. ITBniT-TEScEa, 

ETC. 

Medlars are growing well at Dowaham and have fruited. ~~~ 
The variety tried is the Eoyal. Thesb are handsome trees, 
especially when in blossom, but their fruit is not ma oh liked. 
They winter for only about six weeks. 

The quince thrives in almost any part of the hilla if only its Quinces, 
roots, which grow very near the surface, do not get too dry. 
Tho fruit is abundant, but is only fit for making into jam or 
jelly, The tree is easdy propagated from layers or cuttings, hue 
is of no use as a stock in this country except perhaps for fruit 
culture in pots. 

Peaches are generally raised from the stone and may be seen Pe&cbas. 
growing in almost every coffee estate and garden about Ooonoor 
and Kotagiri ; but with hardly any exception their fruit is only- 
fit for stewing. Mr. Redmond introduced some very good 
varieties into Kotagiri over twenty years ago, but when be 
left the trees were neglected and have mostly disappeared. 
Peaches grow and fruit best in the warmer parts of the Mils 
(5,000 to 6,000 feet) and prefer a light warm soil. If the land 
18 at all stiff or cold they are very subject to ' curl ' and the 
wood does not ripen well. Peaches from England are generally 
grafted or budded on the almond or plum stock and do not 
thrive. The best stock on the Nilgiris is the seedling of the 
common peach, which at one year old is large enough to bud. 
.For grafting, it is better to move the stock when one year old 
and graft the following season. The trees generally fruit the 
second year thereafter. Good varieties imported from Australia 
which have fruited at Downbam are .Red Shanghai, Carmen, Bros 
Mignon and Emma. The peach winters from October to Febru- 
ary, and should be pruned and sprayed in January ; it requires 
root-pruning if making gross growth^ and a good dressing of old 
lime lightly pricked in is advisable. The roots should never be 
allowed to get dust-dry or the trees will shed their buds. The 
early varieties blossom in February and fruit in May-June. 
Peach ( curl ' seems to be the only disease the tree suffers from, 
and the best remedy for this is to pick and burn the affected leaves 
and spray the branches with Bordeaux'' mixture. 

Nectarines grow and fruit well. They like the same oondi- Keoterine». 
tions as peaches, but being more vigorous require summer 
pinching. 

Aprieofcs seem only to have been grown in a very small way Apricots, 
hitherto. , Those atGoonoor and K6tagii*i are seedlings of the 



18 



THE OTLCKRIS. 



CHAP. rv. 
Fruit-tee as, 

ETC, 



Afghan variety, a very poor kind winch is generally brought 
round for sale in the dried state. 

The varieties that do "best at Downham are the Moorpark and 
Mansfield Seedling-, "both imported from Australia. Elruge also 
promises well. The trees winter from December to February 
and then burst into a mass of blossom. This sets well, but the 
fruit ripens just when the south-west monsoon begins, and so 
is very liable to split. It is advisable, therefore, to force the 
trees to blossom as early as possible. They would probably do 
better in warm localities away from the effects of the monsoon, 
such as Kotagiri and Goouoor. 

The plum is one of the hardiest and most easily grown of the 
stone fruits, and thrives well in Coonoor and Kotagiri. Mr, C. 
Oray had a very fine orchard of Black Aloocha and (?) Victoria 
plums at the hotel at the former place some ten years ago, the 
branches being ropes of fruit and having to be supported owing to 
the weight of the crop. The trees are readily raised from seed 
but the fruit of these can never be depended upon ; so when a 
seedling proves a. good one the best plan is to propagate it by 
budding on the poach, which is the best stock lor all plums on 
the Nilgiris. 

The plum winters only for about a month or six weeks in 
November and December and is generally a sheet of blossom io 
January. It requires but little pruning, and this should be done 
in November. A good dressing o£ burnt, refuse, old mortar 
refuse, and well-rotted manure spread over the roots and lightly 
pricked is will enable the tree to set its blossom, and the fruit is 
much improved by being thinned when it is the size of a pea. 
At Downham are several well-grown varieties of the Japanese 
plum which seem cpiifco acclimatized and promise well. Their fruit- 
is very large, semi-transparent, and has a very small stone. The 
tree takes a year or two to accustom itsaU to the change of season, 
but then flowers and fruits well. Plants grafted on the peach 
stock do better than those on the plum which the -Japanese use. 
The best varieties are Botaukyo, Bhu'o , Satsuma and Sultan. The 
Primus Pisardi is a very handsome tree, the foliage being a rich 
purple ; but the fruit is not particularly good, being small though 
sweet. 

The persimmon or date plum grows well. It has beeu raised 
by General Morgan and Sir Frederick Price, and the former 
exhibited some very fine fruit about six years ago. The trees at 
Downham, which were imported direct from Japan, are too 
young to fruit yet but are pi-omisiug well. The beat and most 
vigorous variety is the Daidai Maru. This winters between 
September and October and begins to grow again in December, 



AQRICULTtTBE. 197 

A large cherry tree some 35 years old, which blossoms and CHAP. IV. 
fruits every year, grows in Captain Frend's orchard at Snowdon, Pruit-skees, 
but the fruit is poor, and owing to its situation the tree has "been ^ 

much knocked about by the wind. The Himalayan cherry, or Cherries. 
Prurtus Puddum, is common in Coonoor and on soveral estates, 
but its small fruit is extremely acid. It is however an excellent 
stock on which to bud or graft the better English cherry. This 
has been done at Downham, where trees of the Early Rivers and 
JBigarren.ii Napoleon, imported from Australia, are growing. 
In Ootacamund, at Walpole House, is a JBigarreau Napoleon 
■which fruits every year in May. 

Messrs. George Oakes and Charles Gray imported in Febru- 
ary 1906 one hundred plants of the famous Japanese flowering 
cherry. These have been planted at Downham, Walpole House, 
Whitmore, and Orchardene near Coonoor and seem, to have taken 
kindly to their new surroundings. The tree does not fruifc, but 
is grown for its sheets of blossom in the spring and its scarlet 
and gold leaves in autumn. 

Currants have been hut little grown. General Baker tried Cm-rants, 
the red variety at Tudor Hall and it produced and ripened fruit ; 
Mr. Oakes also grew some bushes, but they did not fruit and 
after about three years died out. The black Haples variety was 
imported by Mr. Oakes, did fairly well and was increased from 
cuttings ; aud a dozen plants imported from Australia in 1906 
promise to do better. They winter from December to February 
and fruit in May. The white Dutch kind has not been tried. 

Gooseberries have been imported from, time to time but Lave Gooseberries, 
not been a success. Mr. Oakes obtained a dozen plants fx'om. 
England in 1900 which are still alive aud make a growth of some 
six inches a year ; but though they bloom the blossom so far 
has not set. Fruit has been grown by Mr. Proudlock, Curator 
of the Government Botanic Gardens, but the climate is too 
mild for gooseberries to do really well. 

llaspberries seem to have been imported many years ago. and RaspbemoB. 
one of the red. kinds is fairly plentiful in Ootacamund and in- 
creases rapidly from suckers. U succeeds best in rows, and 
should be planted in a trench ]£ ft. deep filled with a good 
compost of burnt earth, old mortar, and a fair proportion of well- 
rotted manure. The old canes should be cut out after they have 
fruited and three or four new ones from each stool allowed to 
grow in their place, the younger and smaller shoots, and those 
growing out of line, being repressed. The canes may be 
supported by being lightly tied to a wire stretched on posts. 
They should not be topped. 



198 



the mentis. 



CHAP, IT. There are three indigenous raspberries on the hills ; namely 

ifuu it-trees, Jiulnis rugosm (now Itnown as R. moluceaum), B. tjowre&phul (now 
__1 B. ellipticns) and i2. fasiocarpw*. The fruit of this last is the 

best flavoured, and most plentiful of the three ; that of 
E. gowreepkul is yellow and insipid, and that of R. ruftosm, 
though large, cannot compare in flavour with that of. lasioear-pits. 
Mr. Oaltes imported from England the American variety of 
"blackberry known as the "Wilson Junior. This grew and fruited 
well at Downham, but not at Qotacamund. He also obtained 
from Australia the Lawfon blackberry, which does well at 
Downham. Both varieties have a very large black fruit. They 
are not attacked by any disease but are much troubled by the- 
borer and have to be netted to keep off the birds. B. IfooJesrii 
also grows well at Downham, but the canes are not old enough to 
fruit yet. 

Strawberries. Strawberries have always been largely grown on the hills, 

and do admirably at the higher elevations. General Bakor, Sir 
Frederick Price and the late Colonel De Montmorency have been 
very successful wibh them. They fruit more or less all the year 
round, but the principal season is April and May. They are pro- 
pagated from runners or by division, and these should be taken 
from plants reserved for the purpose and from which all blossom 
has been pinched off. Strawberries prefer a stiffish soi! 4 with a 
good proportion of well-rotted stable manure. With a light soil 
cow-manure is better. The beds should be deeply trenched (two 
feet if possible), well manured, and renewed every second year in 
fresh ground. The strawberry is nearly blight-proof, and 
apparently its only disease is the leaf-spot caused by a fungus, 
the remedy for which is to spray the plants with vermorite or to 
dust sulphur over tliem in the early morning before the dew has 
evaporated. The grubs of the cockchafer attack the roots and 
should be picked out by pricking over the beds to the depth of 
three or four inches. The Laacton is the only variety the name of 
which seems to have been preserved, and this does well at 
Downham. The Alpine variety has been grown at Coonoor with 
much success. 

MTdbewiet. Mulberries appear to have been introduced into the Filgiris 

many years ago, and both the white and black varieties do well at 
any elevation above 4,000 ft. "When once established they 
require. but little cultivation and bear freely. The white was 
introduced for the purpose of feeding silkworms; the black is 
grown for its fruit, and some fine specimens, which bear abund" 
antly, may be seen, in the Government gardens at Qotaoamimd, 
Mr. Oakes has a dozen trees of the black variety at Downham 
and Mr. Gray has several specimens of both kinds at Qoo&oor. 



AOBiaui/ru&s. 109 

Figs will not ripen on the higher elevations, but do well at CHAP. IV. 
Coonoor, Kotagiri and Kalhatti, The best varieties are the white FmiiT-saERS, 
Adriatic, Brunswick, Brown Turkey and Brown Grejioa. The ^_ 
trees require to have their roots restricted or they make a gross s^gs. 
growth and yield but little ; and before the fruit ripens the trees 
must "be carefully netted. Figs are among the easiest fruit trees 
to grow in pots. They are particularly hardy and apparently are 
not attacked by any disease. Trees imported from Australia 
bear a year after planting and are easily propagated from 
cuttings. 

Both white and purple grapes were introduced from Banga- Vinos, 
lore and England very soon after the first Europeans settled on 
the hills. Mr. John Davison, of Coonoor grew both very 
successfully. The vine winters In July, August aud September, 
and begins to make new growth in December* It requires a 
well-made border with free drainage, and a good compost of 
turfy loam mixed with half-inch pieces of bone and, if available, 
some old mortar refuse. Pruning and pmcbicg must be care- 
fully attended to, or the vine will not bear. The winter pruning 
must be done as soon as the leaves are down, only two or three 
eyes of the new wood being left. When the blossom has set, the 
laterals should be stopped to three leaves beyond the bunch and 
sublaterals to one leaf. At Downham there are specimens of the 
Gros Colmar, Camden Sherry, Black Malaga and the Catawba. 
Mr. Gray has a good vinery at Coonoor. 

The only variety of guava that does well is the Psidittm Gnavaa. 
Cailhianum , a native of Brazil giving a very dark purple 
fruit about 1|- inch in diameter -which has a pleasant subacid 
flavour but is generally used for making preserves, it is easily 
raised from seed and requires but little cultivation. 

Oranges will not thrive on the plateau, but there are few Oranges sm& 
coffee estates which have not rcimd their bungalows some trees leraone * 
raised from pips. The flavour of the fruit is not usually good, 
and of late years efforts have been made to introduce better 
varieties. In 1905 Mr, (xray imported plants of the Na-vel, 
Maltese Blood, St Michaelj Seville and other kinds, which are 
doing well but are loo yomtg to bear yet. Mr. Oakes also im- 
ported the two first-named in 1904 and is growing them at 
Kalhatti. Lemons and limes thrive at elevations of from 4,000 
to 8,000 feet. The Met ford and Spanish lemons are very 
prolific and come fairly true from seed. A large variety of lime 
known as the Maltese is often met with on coifee estatos. It 
gives a large quantity of juice, and the peel malfes a marmalade of 



200 



THIS NXLGIBIS. 



CHAP. IT. good flavour. The shaddock (pomelo) is also grown to a certain 
Fbwt-sbsbi, extent, "but the fruit is of indifferent quality, Tlie seedlings 

1 however are an excellent stock on which to graft or bud the better 

kown varieties of oranges. The trees of all the citrus family- 
are attached by the "brown scale (Zecanmw hemisphericwrn) and 
canker. The best remedy for the former is the resin wash 
mentioned in Mr. Maxwell Lefroy's recent work on insect pests. 
Tlie citron is found ou many coffee estates, but as there seems 
little or no demand for the fnut its cultivation has not extended. 



Clierimoyer. 



The delicious cherimoyer {Anona cherimoher) was introduced 
to the Nilgiris by Mr. Clements Markham and planted at the 
Ivalhatfci garden referred to below. Tne trees there appear to have 
died out; and we hear nothing more of this fruit until about 1890, 
when Mr. A. 6. Nicholson reintroduced it to these hills from 
Yercaudj whither the late Surgeon-General Shortt had brought it 
from South America. The tree thrives and fruits well at all 
elevations ^between 4,500 and 6,500 ft., is easily raised from seed, 
quickly responds to a little care and cultivation, and bears in the 
third or fourth year from seed. 

The Spanish Chestnut (Ca&fanea vexect) grows well at the higher 
elevations and has fruited well at Paikara and Ootacamund. It 
hns always been raised from seed. A new variety called the 
Mammoth (grafted) was imported last year by Messrs. Gray 
& Oakes but the trees have not been plauted long enough to 
enable the quality of their fruit to be tested. The small-fruited 
Japanese chestnut was introduced by Sir Frederick Price and 
appears to be quite acclimatized. Mr. Cakes has several specimens 
at Dowokam. 

The walnut is quite established and fruits satisfactorily. At 
Cluny Hall are some very large trees which appear to be about 
40 or 50 years old. The best variety seems to be the thin-shelled 
kind from Burma (Bhaiuo), which grows very rapidly. 

Several kinds of bees are native to the hills, but none of them 
are any good as producers of honey. Having no long winter to 
live through, as English bees have, they do not store any appreci- 
able surplus stock. Mr, Oakes hived the Apis hulica for some 
years in modern frame hives, partly to fertilize fruit blossom in. 
his orchard, but the yield of surplus honey was insignificant and 
rarely amounted to 10 lb. per annum per stock. Sections were 
tried but were never occupied by the bees. The Apis dorsaia has 
also been hived, but never remains more than a month or two 
and then migrates. It is a useless variety and at times very 
vicious, It forms large oologies, general!/ on. lofty blue gum 



AGKICUXTOBE. 201 

brandies Prom tlie under side of which it builds big single combs. CHAP. IV 
As many as twenty have "been counted on one tree. It seems to Faun-msEe 
leave the liig'lier ranges when the south-west monsoon sets in. B ^ 

Another very small bee builds on the branches of low-growing 
shrubs and after swarming' leaves the old comb. The combs arc 
seldom larger than a cricket ball and are built of very fine white 
■wax. The honey is almost white and of very delicate -flavour. 
This variety seems most plentiful on the slopes of the hills, and 
is not often seen on the plateau. 

English, or rather the Punic strain of European, bees, were 
first introduced in January 1903 by Major G-. de Heriez Smith 
of the Central India Horse and Mr. George Oakes. By a curious 
coincidence they both (unknown to each other) ordered the nuclei 
from the same dealer and introduced the same variety. 

Some two or three years before this Mr. Nicholson of Halli- 
karai estate, Ooonoor, had tried Italian bees, but without success, 

Both the nuclei of Punic bees were brought out by friends of 
the importers by Brindisi and Bombay with the mails, and w T ere 
eighteen clays on the journey. They were allowed a cleansing 
flight at Port Said, Aden and Bombay and were then sent on to 
Ootacamund by mail train. Three frames of brood and one 
frame of heather honey, with about a quart of bees and a queen, 
made each nucleus, and ventilation was given by an opening 1 
covered with wire gauze. On their arrival a number of worker 
bees were found dead owing to heat and being knocked about, 
but a good proportion of them and both queens were in excellent 
condition. They were at once put into modern, hives, and on 
being fed the queens at once began laying. In two months 
the bees had increased to the full extent of the hives, and on the 
20th of July the first swarm was thrown off and the apiary very- 
soon increased from two stocks to twenty. 

In May, racks of sections were put on the stronger stocks and 
were rapidly Med and capped, proving that there is abundance 
of bee fodder. The honey was a very good light colour and 
well flavoured'. Some of it was sent to England and favourably 
reported on there- The results for 1903-04 were 588 lb. nm 
honey and 184 sections, but afterwards the stocks began to fail, and 
though the bees were frequently fed no swarms were thrown. of£ 
in 1905 and some of the stocks gradually died out. In 190Q only 
four stocks were left, and though drones were hatched in all the 
hives there were no swarms, and thus it was impossible tore-queen 
—the only hope of re-building the apiary. Attempts were made. 
26 



$0* 



THE STILGIBXS. 



3?F.U5T-TaGES 

ETC. 



CfOVISBIfMSiXT 
Farms ano 
Gardens. 



form. 



to import queens by post, as is done in America and Europe, but 
the dealers said the journey would be too long for the queens to 
survive. 

Owing to tlie lively fear wliich most people have of bijes, it 
has been found impossible to get any one to bring out fresh nuclei, 
and the necessity of the bees being allowed a cleansing flight 
prevents their being shipped unaccompanied. They must be 
brought out by some one who is not too timid to open the hive at 
the ports above mentioned. If this can be done, there is no other 
trouble; no cleaning, feeding- or watering, and the nucleus can 
be hung up in a cabin like an ordinary birdcage. 

Imported bees must be kept warm on the Nilgiris. A good 
blanket quilt of double thickness and weather-proof hives are 
necessary. The best aspect is east, with a hedge or building to the 
west. Then the morning sun warms the bees and induces them 
to work early, and they are shielded from the hot afternoon sun 
and the force of the south-west monsoon. Unless stocks have 
a sufficiency of natural stores, which can easily be ascertained by 
taking out a few frames now and then, feeding is advisable from 
"November to February. The queen in this country lays all the 
year round, but chiefly in March, April and May. lb is advisable 
to re-queen every second year and to provide queens for the 
purpose . 

It is difficult to say, in such a land of flowers, which is the 
chief source of the honey ; but the eucalyptus yields a great deal, 
and also the many hedges of heliotrope and principia. Many of 
the wild flowers seem to give nectar, and the Ohapman honey- 
plant (Eehinnps sphereeephalus, known in England as the ©lobe 
thistle) yields largely. The garden poppy is yery largely drawn 
upon for its pollen. 

The earliest action taken by Government to encourage horti- 
culture or agriculture on the hills was the leasing from. 1827 feo 
1834 of Stonehouse and the garden laid out there by Mr. Sullivan 
(who was the pioneer of ail enterprise in this direction) and the 
purchase in December 1829, along with his house Bishopsdown 
(then called 8outhdowns)j of the other garden he had made round 
about this latter residence. A European gardener was put in 
charge of each of them ; but they appear to have been rather 
ornamental than useful. l 

In April 1830 the then Governor, Mr. Stephen Lushington, 
wrote a long minute on the desirability of horticultural and 

1 Sep. Sir ITMdericIe Price's book. 



AcmnmLTuKE. 



208 



agricultural improvements and an experimental farm was started 
forthwith at Keti. This and the two gardens above mentioned 
were placed under the care of Major Crewe, Assistant Commis- 
sary-^Geueral on the Nilgiris. Most ambitious schemes "were 
contemplated : a large stock of fouls, including four ploughs, was 
ordered from the Arsenal at Madras; six cast artillery horses to 
draw the ploughs were indented for ; the Court of Directors was 
asked to send out a large quantity of agricultural and garden 
seeds and fruit trees ; an indent for fruit trees and vegetable and 
flower seeds from Persia was sent to the Grovernment of Bombay ; 
and cattle for dairy and draught purposes were ordered up. 

It was known that the climate of the plateau was delightful 
and it was believed that its soils were much more fertile than they 
really are ; and it was in consequence confidently hoped that with 
Gfovernment assistance and encouragement permanent settlements 
of English and Eurasian farmers and mechanics might be 
established on the plateau, and that the Nflgiris might become a 
British colony as flourishing as Australia or the Cape. 1 

By 1832, 2 under Major Crewe's superintendence, fields at 
Keti had been broken up in the English fashion with English 
ploughs ; potatoes, wheat, oats and barley had been put down on 
about 150 acres ; some plots had been laid out as gardens ; 
buildings had been erected ; Bs. 2,000 had been realized from the 
sale of produce and seeds; and three families of Enrasians had 
settled on the hills and been aided from the farm, and six more 
were desirous of imitating them . The Directors, however, poured 
cold water on the whole scheme, and oven refused to comply with 
the indent for fruit trees and seeds. In 1836 the land belonging 
to the farm was restored to the Badagas from whom (by rather 
high-handed methods) it had been taken and only the buildings 
and the gardens adjoining them were retained, The subsequent 
fate of these is sketched in the account of Keti on p. 381 below. 
Tims ended the first and last effort by Government to establish a 
model farm on the Nilgiris. 

In his survey report of 1847 on the hills Major Ouolvterlony 
urged the establishment of a farm on the plateau— more especially 
for the growth of wheat and barley, which latter he wished to see 
improved sufficiently to render brewing profitable. He recom- 
mended two alternative sites (the. elevated tract west of the 

1 See, for example, Hook's Letter* m the iVeiigfiemej,-, 137 j Jorvis' book, 
20 j and Major Crewo'R outline plan Jor a settlement on p. 123 o£ the first ediiio* 
of Baikie. 

s 33.M.C., Military Department, dated 5th October 1S32, | 



CHAP. IV. 

Government 

Farms and 

Garoksg. 



204 



THE JHLGIBTS, 



CHAP. IT. 

government 

3tabms and 

Gardens, 



The Govern- 
ment 
Gardens, 

Ootaoamnnil, 



Paikara from Naduvattam to Mukarti Peak, and Kodanad in tlie 
north-east corner of the platoan) and urged that English settlers 
on the Nilgiris would ho far bettor off than ' the many hundreds of 
their unfortunate fellow-countrymen who have hurried heedlessly 
out to the Australian colonies, only to meet with disappointment 
and ruin. } He considered that they would find an excellent 
market for English crops, butter and egg's, and fresh aud salted 
meat (the latter for the shipping) and pointed out that they would 
have a great advantage in the cheapness of native labour— coolies 
being then paid only two annas a day, or less than half the present 
rate. Ho further argued that the planting of trees for firewood 
(then unheard of) would soon bo profitable ; but oHscourag'ed tho 
silkworm culture which had beeu tried at Coouoor, Billika) (see 
p. 349) and other places without much success. 

Ho action was taken by G-overnmont on this part of his report 
In the seventies, when the Saidapet farm was established and 
schemes were afoot for starting experimental farms in various 
parts of the Presidency, the re-awakened interest in matters 
agricultural led to the opening of a model farm at the Lawrence 
Asylum, and to the despatch of Mr. Robertson, Superintendent at 
Saidapet, to the Nilgiris to report on the capabilities of that 
country. The idea of colonizing the hills was not yet entirely 
dead; in suggesting Mr. Robertson's deputation to the hills 
Lord Napier wrote hi 1871 : — 

'MiLchof the good laud on the warm &ide of the Hills 'm subject 
to the rights of native cultivators; the cost of building is excessive; 
the price of labour is high j clothing is dear ; medical attendance and 
education would be costly and difficult oi access : the sale of grain 
crops, fruits, and vegetables would offer little money remuneration 
compared to the wants even of a humble European family ; tho returns 
of tea and coffee cultivation are slow and liable to great fluctuations. 
A poor man would find it difficult to establish and maintain himself ; 
a richer man would prefer to go elsewhere. My own impressions are 
decidedly unfavourable to the Hills as a scene of agricultural settlement 
for Englishmen j 'but I think it would tend to th e correction of erroneous 
impressions and to the formation of sound opinions that this question 
should be illustrated by the rejaort of a person of unquestionable 
judgment and practical knowledge in such matters.' 

Mr Bobertson, however, was not at all hopeful of success 
and no definite action followed his report, 

The Government Gardens at Ootacamund began life in 1845 
as a kitchen garden started by subscription among -the European 
residents and designed to supply them with vegetables at reason- 
able cost, Their history is detailed in Sic Frederick Price's book. 



AGRiOULTITliK #05 

In. 1847 mouey way raised to improvo them into a Public Garden CHAP. IV, 

and form a Horticultural Society. The then Governor of Madras*, Gouiknmext 

tho Marquis of Tweeddale, took much interest in the project; F £ Ejrs A ^ D 

subscribed Rs. 1,000 ; and persuaded the Directors to send out — 

.Mr. W. G. Mclvor, a scientific and practical gardener trained 

at Sew, to take charge of matters. He arrived in 1848; and 

Government sanctioned Hg, 100 per mensem in. support of the 

Gardens and appointed a committee to manage thorn. At that 

time tho sit<i of tho present Gardens was in a very primitive state : 

' the upper portion was a forest, with heavy trees on its steep and 

rugged banks, the lower part was a swamp, the who]o being' 

traversed by deep ravines.' The upper portion, f where sambhar, 

jungle-sheep, sometimes a bear and numbers of jungle-fowl were 

lobe found ' in former times, was first improved; and in 1851 

the lower part was purchased and added to it, The swamp there 

was reclaimed, tho ravines were filled up with silt shovelled into 

the streams which poured down the hill side, and at length 

Mr. Molvor's taste and judgment resulted in ihe formation of one 

of the most beautiful Public Gardens in India. Much of his 

success is c tine to the happy manner in which advantage has 

been taken of the picturesque lay of the laud and of the trees and 

rocks with which it abounds. Bits of fine old sliola still nestle 

undisturbed in. nooks and corners of the grounds, though they 

are now connected by gravel paths and grassy slopes intersected 

by bods o£ flowers.'' The ornamental pond and tho parterro round 

it were made between 18G4 and 1887. 

'Differences between Mr. Mclvor and his committee led to the 
latter's sn.perses.sion in 1853 by a smaller body, consisting of ihe 
Collector, tho Officer Commanding Ootacamund and the Senior 
Medical Officer, which exercised a less direct control; in 1857 the 
Garden ti were placed under the superintendence of the Conser- 
vator of Forests : in 1860 Mr. Melvnr was in addition put in 
charge of tho cinchona plantations and in 1868 he was given 
a Deputy, Mr. Jaun>scra, to assist him; in 1871 the latter took 
entire charge of the Gardens"; in 1883 the Government Parks and. 
Gardens on ihe Nilgiris were put under tho Mr. Lawson already 
mentioned, who had just arrived as Government Botanist and 
Director of ihe Cinchona Plantations (subject to the general 
control of the Commissioner of the Nilgiris); and this arrange- 
ment continued in* til 1898, when (as above stated) these two posts 
were separated and the Parks and Gardens were placed under the 
Collector's control and managed by a trained horticulturist 
designated the Curator. 



206 



THE NILftlUIS. 



Farms and 
Garb e km. 



The Kalliatti 

branch 

garden. 



The Coonoor 

branch 

garden. 



Sim's Park, 
Ooonoor. 



The Earliyar 
Garden. 



In 1878 a medicinal garden, five acres in extent, was formed 
at the head of the Gardens at, the suggestion of the Surgeon- 
General, tlie plants grown wherein included ipecacuanha, jalap, 
rhubarb, peppermint, digitalis and taraxacum. 

About, 1855 Mr. Mclvor opened a small branch garden of 
about five acres just above the Kalliatti falls on the Sigiir ghat 
for the cultivation of plants requiring a warmer climate and lower 
elevation than those of Ootacamund. Sir (then Mr.) Clements 
Markham, who visited it in i860, says that it then contained 
ti oranges of many kinds, shaddocks, lemons, limes, citrons, 
nutmegs, loquats and plantains. On this spot the delicious 
Chiximoyas, tiie seeds of which we brought from Peru, will 
hereafter ripen and enable the people of India to taste * tho 
masterpiece of nature.' " Mr. Mclvor's reports show that, in 
addition to the above trees, apples, pears, plums, peaches, figs, 
mulberries, raspberries, nectarines, apricots, vines, filberts, 
currants, strawberries and pice-apples (in all 178 species and 
varieties) wcro being tried in 1859 in the garden, which, lie claimed, 
then possessed the most extensive stock of such frnifc in all India. 

Subsequently the garden, attracted less and less interest and 
eventually in October 18S7 the land was -sold in public auction, it 
being considered that the climate of Kalhatti was so similar to 
that of Coonoor that it was unnecessary to keep up a separate 
garden in die former, 

A branch garden had been established m Ooonoor in 1857 
for raising vegetable seeds and English fruit trees. It was sold 
in 1873, the year before Sim's Park there was taken over. 

Sim's Park was so named after Mr. .]. D. Sim, C.S.I., who 
had taken much interest in laying it out. It wat begun in 1874 
and was taken over by Government in December of that year 
It lies in a beautiful little ravine which contains some admirable 
patches of natural shola and has been considered to be even more 
picturesque than the Ootacamund Gardens. At the bottom 
of tke ravine a small stream has been dammed up to form a 
miniature lake. 

In 1870 Government purchased for Rs. 2,000 the Garden at 
Barliyar, 7|- miles from Coonoor down the ghat road and 2,800 
to 2,500 feet above tne sea. This had been originally formed 
by Mr. E, B. Thomas when he was Collector of Ooimbatore and 
the Nilgiris (1851-58) and by 1857 * already contained, a large 
collection of tropical and aab-tropical fruit trees and plants, some 

1 Br. OlegUom'a note in MJ.US., xviii, 303. 



agiuci!lttj:rd. 207 

of them of rarity and value. When it came into the market in CHAP. TV. 
1870 Messrs. Mclvor and -Tamieson strongly recommended its Government 
purchase, partly in order to try ipecacuanha there, and their ^J^wre? 
suggestion was approved. It now covers about eight acres and — — 
the tr£es and plants thriving in it include several lands of rubber, 
mangosteeu, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, allspice, cocoa,' mahogany, 
camphor, breadfruit, Htchi, langsat and durian. The fruit raised 
in the garden is sold to the public and of late years some income 
has also been made by the sale of rubber plants and seeds. 

The Government Gardens and Parks in charge of the Curator The prescnii 
now include, at Ootacamimd, the Botanical Gfardens, the Govern- & ov eramenj5 
ment House Garden adjoining, and sundry pieces of public land Parks, 
in the station winch require to be kept in an ornamental condition ; 
at Coonoor, Sim's Park ; at Bm-liyar the Ga i-dens above mentioned ; 
a small nursery at Benhope, on the Coonoor ghat and about 2.800 
feet in elevation, which was taken over from the Forest department 
in 1902 ; and a block of about ten acres near Kallar, at tho foot 
of the same ghat and about 1,800 feet above the sea, which was 
taken over from the Forest department in 1900 and is used for 
experiments with rubber trees and fibre-pro dueing plants. 



THE NILCWniS. 

CHAPTER V. 

FORESTS. 



CHAP. V. 
"Woods ox 



Destruction 
m'enrly days 



WtiOTiu on tug L'i.ateac — Their nnt&i'o— Destruction in c.niy day a— First conser- 
vation— Dr. Clegliom a suggestions, 1S38 — Rules for then protection, I860 
— Their tumstfer 1o ihe Commissioner, 18fiS — Be-iranst'cr to the ITorcM; 
department, 1S75 — If "sev ration imder tlie Forest Act. — To'da, patta latuls 
— "Present sv^em in the plateau woodlands. AiiTirarr \ £. iTiEHY. oon Plant- 
\tions — Fust introduction of Australian trees — The lirbt Goveriiineiit 
plantations —The existing' plantations — Their ehief. enemies. Deciduous 
FoKi'isTh up thb NoiiTiiiius Slopes — Growth in tlie jloviir valley— Sandal- 
Wood plantation. DECrnpocs Forests of the ft'viun — Ileum' forest — 
To{ikpla.ntation--Miifluraaliii i'oroBt — Teak plantation there. 

The forests oJ! tlie district 11107 be divided into four classes; 
namely, tlie evergreen woods (sliolas) on the plateau, tlie arti- 
ficial plantations (for firewood) of Australian trees round tlie 
stations there, the deciduous forests of the northern slopes includ- 
ing 1 the Moyar valley, and the forests of the Wynaadj which are 
also deciduous hut are far heavier and more dense than the last. 
The trees characteristic of each of these tracts have already 
(pp. 20-26) "been "briefly mentioned. The growth 011 the top of 
the plateau and along its upper edges is the only forest which is 
really evergreen. The greater part of the eastern and southern 
slopes of the plateau is included in the Ooimbatore district and 
the forests there thus need no detailed mention, here. 

The first of the above four clasaus, the sh61as on the plateau, 
are not of any great importance from a commercial point of view, 
as the trees in them are slow-growing; varieties (largely JHugenias 
and rhododendron) which produce timber of little or no value and 
probably take at least a century to mature ; but they add greatly 
to the beauty of the country and are of immense use in protecting 
sources of water-supply. 

There can be little doubt that throughout the country now 
occupied by the Badagas those sholas were formerly fa? more 
numerous and extensive than at present, and that the Badagas 
had done immense destruction among them even before the first 
Europeans came to the hills. The frequency of the existence of 
the suffix fadd, meaning jungle or forest, to the names of places 
wherej though the soil is particularly suitable for the growth of 
timber, hardly a tree is now to be found, is one evidence of this ; 
and another h the way in which, in many otherwise almost bare 



1?0BES2S. 



209 



localities, a few great shdla trees have survived the general 
destruction because they were considered to "be holy or the Homes 
of the unseen genii of the place. 

J^yen after the British occupation of the plateau this denuda- 
tion was not at once checked. As is mentioned on p. 288 b«low, a 
Badaga was then allowed to occupy a tract five or even, ten times 
greater than that for which he actually paid assessment ; and 
! grazing pattas * were also allowed imdpr which a ryot could hold 
grass land up to one-fifth of his regular holding at one-onarter 
of the ordinary rate of assessment ; while in the Kiradahs there 
werp plough and hoe leases under which a ryot oould cultivate 
any land he chose on priyment of the assessment for tibe number 
of ploughs or hoes he used, 

The destruction which resulted from these lav- systems was im- 
mense : except at Biklvapattim«iid there is now not a shola worth 
mention all along' the north sdde ot the plateau from Marlimand 
to Kodan^dj an area of about 75 square miles; and even the 
Orange Valley, once (see p. 8) famous for its groves of wild 
oranges and limes, hasbpen so stripped of its growth that most of 
its rich soil has been washed down to the plains. A Collector of 
experience described as under the results which had ensued : — 

' They fine Badagas) have systematically destroyed every tree in 
the neighbourhood of their villages and for,milee around., leaving 
nothing standing for their requirements hut stunted shrubs such as 
DodoncBa, Berleru, tarissa, etc. This has brought its own punish- 
ment, for the Badagas have to travel miles to oLtain timber and fuel. 
The manure that is so necessary for their impoverished lands is now 
extensively used for burning bricks and tiles ; and for want of protec- 
tion the monsoon gales sweep over the fields unchecked, to the great 
detriment of the crops. The ground is parched in the dry weather 
and there is no grass for ths cattle, which the owners are compelled 
to drive into the malarious forests below, where the herdsmen get 
fever and the cattle are killed by tigers. The villages also suffer 
£rom scarcity of water in the hot weather, owing to exhaustion of the 
springs in the ravines which have been denuded of trees.' 

He might have added that many streams which were once 
perennial are now, owing to the absence of forests which might 
absorb rainfall, quite dry one day and raging torrents the nextj 
and that the amount of scour they occasion when, in these sudden 
floods is a clanger to cultivation, roads and bridges. 

This description applies to the Badaga country proper — in the 

east and north-east of the plateau and round about Ealkundah, 

Probably the grass land to the west of Ootacamtrad and on the 

Kundahs was never covered with forest (though there are signs 

27 



CHAP. v. 

Woods on 



£10 



THE SILOIHTS. 



OHAP. T. 

Woods os 
the 



First coaser- 
vation. 



Dt, Cleg. 
horn's sug- 
gestions, 
3858. 



that the sholas were lugger than now) for its soil, with its thick 
underlyiog stratum of cold gravelly clay, is scarcely suited to 
timber. 

When Europeans first settled on the plateau the great demand 
for firewood and "building material resulted in much recHess 
idling of the sholas near Ootacamund and Coonoor, and Govern- 
ment made early efforts to check the mischief. They inserted a 
clause in the title-deeds of Hand granted by thein requiring the 
grantee to plant a sapling for every tree he felled ; and in 1837 
they directed that in future no trees should "be cut down within 
the military limits of Ootacamund without special sanction, which 
sanction was never to be grauted unless the trees were neither 
ornamental nor useful as protectors of springs. 

Neither rule did much good, apparently ; and about 1852 a 
Conservancy establishment of a Forester and sis peons was sanc- 
tioned. Sir. B. B. Thomas, a great lover of trees, was now 
Collector oC Ooimbatore (in which the Nilgiris was at the time 
included) and it was largely due to his efforts that the destruc- 
tion was somewhat checked. In a report of 1858 on the hill 
woodlands Dr. Gleghorn, the first Conservator of Forests, wrote 
of him — 

' He has earnestly and unceasingly exercised a personal super- 
vision of the woods around Ootacamund when ha visited the Nil- 
giris, and ban manifested a warm interest in Jhe progress of this 
department as evinced by the establishment of his private garden at 
Barliy&r, which h<*s been productive of much good in disseminating 
fruit and other trees. I do not hesitate to affirm with truth that but 
for his continued exertions the neighbourhood of Ootacamund would 
have Weii denuded of its -remaining beautiful eholas long einee. J 

Dr. Gleghorn suggested that matters shonld be improved 
by appointing a European Forester limiting the amount of 
felling allowed, planting quick-growing trees to replace those cut 
down, encouraging the use of peat for fuel, and forming plan- 
tations at Ootacamund and Wellington and avenues along the 
main lines of roads. Government directed him and Mr. Thomas 
to draw up rules for the conservancy of the woodlands and sanc- 
tioned a grant for the proposed planting at Ootaearaund ; but 
further than this they did not go. 

Towards the close of 1 859 Mr. Thomas again drew their 
attention to the urgency of the inatter> especially round the 
stations. People were still allowed to fell trees where and when 
they chose in Government sh61&3 without payment, and thus the 
most powerful incentive to private planting for firewood (which 
had now, see below, begun) was lost. 



FORESTS. Si! 

Sir Charles Trcvelyan's Government again consulted tlie Con- CHAP. V. 
servator and then passed a series of rules and regulations •which. Woods on 
if only they had been enforced) would have been ample to protect p t Iieac 

the sholas from further depredations. It was ordered, for example, 

that*the whole of tire woods round Gotacamund should be abso- ^^f ™ t6Q ^ 
lutely reserved, no wood-cutters being allowed inside them and the tiou, i860, 
vacant spaces in them being planted up ; and that certain sholas 
at a distan.ee from the station should be felled in rotation to supply 
the current demand and afterwards planted np again by the Con- 
servancy department 

These rules wore also to be applied, so far as might be neces- 
sary, to the sholas at and round Cooneor. An additional Forester 
\vas sanctioned ; an overseer was appointed for Coonoor ; and not 
long afterwards Major (now General) Morgan, Deputy Conser- 
vator of Forests, was placed in charge of the Nilgiri sholas 
and plantations, and also of the r T ^dumalai and other forests in 
Wynaad. 

Protection however, continued to be ineffectual ; and in 1868 Their trans- 
Mr. Breeks, who had recently been appointed Commissioner of commit 
the district, said ( Bay by day I feel more satisfied that, unless Bioner, 1868. 
conservancy is taken in hand and organized on some efficient foot- 
ing under the control of an experienced officer, the destruction of 
the surrounding sholas is but a question of time/ 

Prom. 1st April 1S69 the Government sanctioned the transfer 
of the woods and plantations on the plateau, to the Commissioner's 
care, the Jungle Conservancy Rules being introduced into them ; 
and in September of the same year the late Major Jago 3 attached 
to the Wellington depdfc, was put in direct charge of them under 
the Commissioner's control. 

In 1875, the woods were retransf erred to the Forest depart- He-transfer 

meat, under the care of which they have ever since remained, *° tlie 'forest 

1 - 1 department^ 

But the destruction of the woodlands round the stations which 1875. 
had come into private hands either by purchase from the Badagas or 
by sales under the Waste Land Rules went on as before ; and in 
January 1878 a commission was appointed to report what forests 
might be regularly reserved. Eventually Government decided In 
1880 to reserve strictly the whole of the woods remaining on. the 
plateau, which by now, except on the west, were of small extent. 

But no demarcation of these woods on the ground was pro- Reservation 
vided for, their boundaries being merely marked on the maps; and S^VVh 
when, in 1882^ the Forest Act was introduced, the selection, map- 
ping and demarcation of the reserves had for the most part to be 
done afresh. 



312 



THE 'NHGIHI& 



CHAP. V. 
Woods on 

SHE 
PfcATEAV. 



'J^aa patta 
lands. 



This work has now been systematically completed throughout 
the district and the reserved forests in the NiLgiris at present in- 
clude practically the whole of the slopes of the plateau so far as 
they are included in the district ; the stretch of land "between the 
plateau's northern crest and the Moy£r river ; such scattered Klocks 
of isolated, forest on the top of the eastern half of the plateau as 
hare escaped destruction "by Badagas and those who opened coffee 
and tea estates ; and (the most noteworthy stretch of all) practi- 
cally the whole of the country (excluding a few patches of culti- 
vation and estates) betw&en Ootacammid and the western edge of 
the plateau^ comprising the Kimdah range and the 80 square miles 
of the lately-reserved i Weniock Downs.' 

In tho case of the Knndahs and the Downs an exception to the 
usual forest rules was made,, after much discussion, in 1905 in that 
the annual burning of the grass was permitted. These areas are 
chiefly of value as great grazing- grounds ; and it was considered 
that burning was essential to the production of the young green 
grass so desired by the graziers and did no appreciable harm to the 
sholas as long as it was done early in the year while the under- 
growth and bracken in and round thorn was still green, and if 
precautions were taken to prevent the .fire from spreading to any 
inflammable growth which ran up into them. 



The figures in the margins 



Taluk. 


, „ i Percentage to 
Are. o( resets . >; f 


Coonoor 
Ootacamumil .. 

Total .., 


W 
SOU 
30 


31 
TO 
11 

42 


401 



the extents now finally pro- 
tected. The 
percentage of 
the area of 
Gudalur taluk 
(an airnost un- 
broken sea of 
jungle) which 
is reserved is 
small because 
yo much of the 
land there has been declared to be private janmani property. 

Besides the reserves proper on the plateau, the Forest depart- 
ment also controls the allotments of laud which (see p. 272) were 
made to the various Toda mands in l£43 and 1863 and coniirmed at 
the last settlement. These allotments consist largely of woodland 
and were intended .to provide the Todas with a certain, extent of 
inalienable grazing- ground round about their dwellings. Difficulty, 
however, was from the first experienced in preventing them from 
sub-leasing the land to market-gardeners and others to be broken 
up for the cultivation, of potatoes or other vegetables ; and in 1882 
it was found necessary to direct that 



F0BEST8. 213 

should lie imposed on any land so alienated, These T(5da reserva- CHAP. V. 
tions often march with the Government forests and in the aggro- Woods on 
gate they comprise a considerable extent of forest. They are p^tevu 

according]) 1- now controlled "by rules framed under section 26 of the 

Forest Act which, while they protect the Todas in the exercise of 
their ancient privileges —allowing them, to graze their "buffaloes 
free, to take fuel and grass for their domestic requirements, to 
receive free permits to remove timber, bamboos, etc. for repairing 
their mands or temples, and even (though, the privilege is never 
exercised) to cultivate — yet prevent other classes of people from 
molesting these patches of forest. Tho Todas are also allowed free 
grassing for their buffaloes in the other reserves— a concession 
allowed to no others. 

The woods on the plateau itself are now strictly conserved and Present 
no felling of any kind is permitted in them. Dead wood is re- X 8 JJJJ™ tIie 
moved, however, and grass and bracken are allowed to be out on woodlands, 
permit on the usual system. Cattle-grazing is also permitted on 
payment of i'ees in all the sholas except a few in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the stations in the case of which special reasons 
(such as the necessity of protecting water-supply from pollution) 
exist for excluding cattle. 

Tho Government's efforts to preserve the woodlands have been Aetiwciad 
immensely furthered by the extensive planting of Australian trees Fikeiyood 
for firewood which has been undertaken officially and by private 
agency. These plantations form the second of the four classes 
of forests in the district above referred to. 

The Australian blaskwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and wattle First fairo- 
{A. rtealhaia) were first introduced about 1832, and Sir Frederick SSian 
Price considers that they were brought over ft om Tasmania by trees, 
the Captain Ban whose name has already (p. 110) been mentioned. 
The blue gum (Jbu-cnhjptus i/bbidus) was first introduced in 1843, 
in which year (says Sir Frederick) Captain F. Cotton of the 
Madras "Engineers planted in the grounds of Gayton Park at 
Ootacamund a tree of that species which is still standing and is 
now upwards of 100 feet high. Four others which he put down 
shortly afterwards at Woodcot are also still in existence, and three 
of these are even bigger than that at Gfayton Park. Tho most 
rapidly growing forest trees in Europe would not attain theso 
dimensions in less than. 150 years. 



314 



THE NIMUBIS. 



artificial 
Plantations. 



The first) 

GoTrernmenfc 
plantatioES. 



definite plan on. the Tudor Hall estate, and distributed the rest 
among the settlers on the hills. Even by 1 857 blackwood and 
wattle "were so scarce that plants of them were sold at the Govern- 
ment Gardens at fonr annas apiece, while blue gum plants fetched 
as much as twelve annas. These three trees have since* then 
altered the whole appearance of the Nilgitu hill-stations, and acres 
of land which appear in the old sketches and photographs as open, 
grass are now covered with their gloomy foliage. 

They are held in little esteem as timber. The wattle grows 
into a dense scrub of small shoots springing up from its creeping 
underground suckers, and the wood of the blackwood and blue 
gum is said to rot rapidly when placed in the ground. Blue gum, 
moreover, warps greatly if sawn when green, and if left to season 
is stated to become difficult to work. On the other hand it may 
be urged in defence of both the latter timbers that in theNilgiris 
they have seldom been cut from really matured trees ; that 
seasoning in water would probably improve them ; and that in 
Australia blue gum wood is largely used for building, fencing and 
railway sleepers and blackwood for furniture and the interior 
fittings of houses. 

The first Government plantation of Australian trees in the 
district was made in 1856* near Bleak House, Wellington, by 
Captain Campbell, Assistant Executive Engineer, It is now 
known as Bandy Sh61a. By 1859 he had expended Bs. 10,000 
and had planted wita blackwood (aud a few deodars and pines) 
98 acres of land, on which two hundred thousand of these trees 
were alive. 1 

At Ootacamund, the Collector, Mr. B. B. Thomas, began 
planting in 1857. He put down 8,000 blackwood and blue gum 
trees and sowed some more m shdlas which had been partially 
denuded. The existence of Australian trees in the heart of some 
of the sholas near Ootacamund (which does not add to their 
beauty) is due to this latcer action of his. 

In 1858 Government sanctioned the planting, under Mr. 
McTvor's superintendence, of 10,000 trees in and about Ootaca- 
mund for ornamental purposes and with the idea of encouraging 
tree-growing by private persons. Except about the borders of the 
lake, few of the trees then put down survive, and these few have 
been indifferently cared for. Thereafter Government fuel planta- 
tions were formed at an increasing rate. By i869, when the 
forests of the plateau wore put under Jungle Conservgncy as 

1 Interesting information regarding this and other plantations on the hilla 
■will be i oand in Dr. Olegiiom's Forssta and Qar&ens of South India (hoiad.ont 
1861), 171-88. 



215 



already described, they covered 191 acres; and by 1875, when CHAP. V. 

the Forest department took charge, they had grown to 919 acres. Artificial 

Private planting h;id also been found to be very profitable and Plantations. 

had proceeded apace, and the cry to-day is not that; there is any 

want of firewood (tor trees barely pay for the felling) but that 
the houses in the stations are too often buried iti masses of tall 
Australian trees which shut out light, air and the view. 

The Government plantations now in existence are as under l : The existing 

plantations. 



Name. 


Area . 


When 
planted. 


Species of trees. Metlofl oHreatoiont, 

1 




Acs. 




OotacmnimcL Range. 




Arambi 


221 


1863-85. 


Blue gum, Frenela, 


Part of this is one of 






1S75-76 


pines and cy- 


the oldest of the 






and 


presses'. 


plantations, 58 acres 






1885-87 




having been put dowa 
in 1863. Since 1882 
the blue gum has been 
worked on a ten years' 
rotation. 


Oairn Hjll ... 


110 


1877-78 


Blue gum and 
conifers. 


Ten yeai a' rotation from 
1882. 


Dharma Tope. 


5-5 


18715 


Bine gum 


Not worked j was pat 
down as an experiment 
and to induce private 
planting. 


Marliaiand ... 


13'4 


I860 and 


Blue gum mixed 


Thinned in 1891-92. 






1883 


with wattle. 


Not worked, as no 
demand. 


Brooklands ... 


22 


1802 


Wattle and a little 
blue gom, 


Thinned in 18W3-91. 
Wattle cut over twice. 


Snowdon 


14 


18110 


Wattle and mcla- 
noxylon. 


Thinned m 1891-93. 


Baikie 


82 


1874 and 


Bine guru and 


Coppiced on a 10 years' 






1882 w-tttle. 


rotation from 1884. 


Madana 


13-5 


1863 


Bltie gum and 
wattle. 


Do, do. 


Sheffield ... 


25 


1862 


Wattle and niela- 
noxylon and a 
few blue gome. 


Do. do. 


Kalli 


14 


1870 


Blue gum 


Out in 1881. Coppiced 
on a ten years' rotation. 


Chan ghat 


21 


1871 


Do. 


Out in 1889 and 1891. 


Kalli. 








Coppioed on a ten 
years' rotation. 


Audi 


24-5 


1873 


Blue gum and 
melanozjlon . 


The blue gum was cut 
over in 18S6, Cop- 
piced on a ton years' 
rotation. 


Governor's 


24'7 


1863-72 


Blue gum and 


Was out over in 1881. 


Sheila No. I 






wattle. 


Coppiced on a ten 
years' rotation. 



1 "Elie partieulars which follow have been supplied by Mr. A. B, Jackson, 
District Forest Officer, who has also been bind enough to assist with other parte 
of this chapter. 





!16 




THE UIMHWS. 




CHAP. V, 




i 
| 


Wh n 




Method of treatment, 


Artificial 
IPxreWood 
Plantations. 


Name. 


Area.! 

1 


planted. 


Species of trees. 


etc. 




i 




Ootacamund Range 


„ 








— coat. 






Governor's 


31-6 i 


1863-72 


Blue gum 


Was out over in 1885 




Shola No. IF 








to 1887 Coppiced on a 
ten yesuV rotation 




Arnakal 


M i 

1 


1873 


Do. 


Cut iii 1892. Co.piced 
on a ten years' i*eta- 
tiou. 




Huppatti 


107 ! 

i 


1870 


Do. 


Cut m 1893. Coppiced 
on a ten years' rota- 
tion. 




MaWanad ... 


73 5 


1880-81 


Do. 


Nof. cut ; vrafl originally 
plan'ecl with the idea 
of supplying timber. 




CliGimnangnli. 


27'S 


1879 


Do, 
Goonoor Kan^e. 


Worked for charcoal as 
demand aii»*'S. 




Black liridge. 


56 


187t and 
1870-77 


Rlae gum 


Includes ttie Rook Plan- 
tation. Felling began 
in lS9ri, as a demand 
arose for supply to the 
Co'nmisBiirwt depart- 
ment 




Bleak House. 


57 


1857 


Wattle with a 
sprinkling of 
melunoxylon and 
bluo gum. 


Has been worked with 
i-prmgfiekl as one 
working circle. 




Springfield , . 


30 




Wattle with pat- 


Worked with Bleak 










ches of blue gu n. 


Honac under ooppiee. 




Bandy Sh&a. 


91 


1866 


Jlelanoxylon and 


The earliest Govern- 








■watile. 


ment plantation, 












Worked as coppice 












under standard. 












Ch-sed fco grasing. 




Coonoor Peak. 


221 


187 2-7 S 


Bine gnat 208 
ao^ea and tixotice 
15 acres. 


Blue gum worked sinoo 
1883 under' a ten years' 
rotation as coppice 
under standard, 










changed fo simple 










coppice during second 










rotation, Gloaed to 




Teppakuchi ,., 


35 


Not knowi 


Blue gum 


"Nob worked yat. 




Ballia 


60 


1872 


Eiue gum and 


J Coppice under stan- 




Little Rallia . 


1 10 


:i872 


wattle. 
Blutf guru 


\ dard on 10 years 1 

i rntsa.tinn. 




Newman 


1 « 


[ 1870-71 


Bo. ... ij " "' 



Practically the whole of them consist of bine gain. This 
tree is now coppiced at ten-year intervals. The system linown 
as ' coppice with, standards ' «as tried formerly, hut it was found 
that the standards were 01 little use for timber and that their 
shade retarded the growth of the coppice. Such wattle as 
exists is also coppioed, and does well under that system. The 



FORESTS. 217 

v vood is all felled and stacked in cut lengths by the Forest de- CRAP. V. 

partment, and is sold either retail at the d6p6ts at Ootacaimmdj -Artificial 

Ooouoor or Wellington or m the plantations by the ' lot ' to plantations. 



j purchasers who remove it at their own cost ami retail it at 
a profit. The average annual quantity thus disposed of hj the 
Forest department now amounts to as much as 3,500 tons of fire- 
wood valued at lis. 11,700 and 2/500 bags of charcoal worth 
Es 1,970, and firewood costs as little as Bs. 4 per ton delivered at 
the door, The successful cultivation oi these foreign trees has 
thus solved one of the most difficult of the problems which beset 
the foundation of the hill-stititions on the Nilgiris. 

The plantations consist so largely of blue gum because that 
tree has proved far more satisfactory as a firewood producer than 
either wattle or blackwood and than the pines (chiefly Pinus 
longifolia), cypresses (mainly Cupressus macrocarpa) and other 
trees (such as Frenela rhomboidea) which have been tried on 
smaller scales round about Ootacamund. It grows admirably 
from coppice; whereas blackwood coppices poorly and wattle 
grows into a dense mass of small stems which are of little use 
except for small firewood. Experiments made at Dr. Brandis 3 
suggestion in 1882 by a special officer showed that the annual 
increment per aero of blue gum was from U to IS tons, whereas 
that of blackwood was only about 6 tons. Even the second of 
these figures, however, is far above the yield of the most produc- 
tive natural forests or plantations in Europe ; and the indigenous 
sholas of the plateau are of such exceedingly slow growth that 
it has been calculated that their yield is only about half a ton 
per acre per annum. The blue gum should not be planted near 
springs which are deserving of protection as it absorbs immense 
quantities of subsoil moisture. The leaves of the trees felled in the 
Government plantations are sold to a contractor who distils 
eucalyptus oil from them. 

The greatest enemy of the blue gum is high winds, and a Their chief 
shelter belt to windward is usually left when coppicing is carried e3Qemles * 
out. The worst foes of the blackwood are the loranthaceous 
misletoe-Hke parasites which abound on the hills and attack 
numerous varieties of trees and plants from the small St. -Tohn's 
wort up to the largest forest timber. The seeds of these pests 
are coated with an extremely tenacious gam, and being carried 
from tree to tree by birds, which are very fond of them, adhere 
to the bark and there germinate. Their action is slow but 
sure and no cure for it has yet been discovered ; they eventually 
28 



218 



■XiJh NILGIBIS. 



autis'icial 

j^ibewood 

Plantations 



D*:en>rous 

'Forests 

of rtip 

North EKi 

Slopiih, 

the Mcyar 
valley. 



Sandal wood 
plantation. 



kil] branoh aftej* branch of their host until the latter is starved 
by the. death of its leaves and. the abstraction of its sap. The 
blaokwood possesses a very rough bark to which the seeds adhere 
easilj ; bat tin- blue gum bark is not only smooth, but skedp 
itself periodically, and this tree thus escapes damage. A 
description of thesse serious pests, with numerous illustrations, will 
be found in Dr. Bidie's yeitylwrtf Lomntftaceom parasitical plants 
(Madras Government Press, 1874). 

The third group of the Nitgiri forests comprises the deciduous 
woods id the northern slopes between tbo crest of the plateau 
and the Koyar 1'Lver. 

Just under the crest and m the Moyar valley are some 
sparsely distributed teak (mostly badly -shaped, small and dam- 
aged), some good vengai (Pierncarpus Marsupmm) and hlackwood 
{Dalbergia htifolia), and also Lagerdrmmias and Terminahcm; while 
on the drier strip between these two areas is much. Anog&ismus 
and, as far west as Masinigudi, a good deal, of sandalwood. 
Further west than this, where the rainfall is heavier, the sandal 
grows with but little heart and is thus of small commercial value. 

The best patch of timber in this tract is that below the 
Paik&ra falls ; but this has been very heavily worked in past 
years. Elsewhere timber trees grow but indifferently, as this 
country gets but little of the south-west monsoon ; and the forest 
has chiefly been worked as a grazing -ground for the cattle of 
Mysore and the Nilgiris, for its minor produce (which is col- 
lected by the Kasttbas) and for its sandalwood, which is of 
fair quality and has brought in a steady revenue for years past. 
The minor produce chiefly consists of honey, wax, shed deer-horns 
and myrabolams. The last, however, have become almost unsale- 
able since chrome tanning came into favour. 

The sandal is marked and felled departmentally, cleaned of its 
sapw'ood, and taken to the Masinigudi depot for sale by tender. 
Present prices are about Es. 5 per maand of keartwood. 

Near the Northern Hay estate, below the Paik&ra falls, a plan- 
tation of sandalwood 28 acres in extent was started in 1872-73 
and for several years much money was expended upon it. Mr. 
Gamble calculated in' 188 5 that the outlay had by then amounted 
to lis. 10,050, or Es. 437 per acre. The site is tins a Liable, being 
altogether beyond the western boundary of the range of natural 
sandal, and though the trees grow well enough they form but 
little hearfrwood owing to the dampness of the climate. The plan- 
tation has not been a -success, therefore, and is not being extended. 



3 a the last class of the Nilgiri forests, the deciduous growth in CHAP. V. 
the Wynaad, the only tracts of importance are the Benne and ^ cinDOlft 
Mudumalai forests, the position of which is shown in the map hi on the 
the pocket at the end of this volume. Though almost all the ^™t^* 
South-east Wynaad is covered with forest, much of the land is 
private janmam property in. which the jungles are not at the 
disposal of Groverainerjt. Some areas have been reserved round 
about OheraraMdi, hut they are far from any market and all that 
is done in them is to collect and sell the minor produce. 

The Benne forest consists of a block 11,000 acres in extent j^ n "f 
lying in the north-west corner of the Wynaad. It contains teak, 
vengai, ven-teak (Laytrsiminia laneeolaia), blackwood and Termi- 
nalia tomeniow. (hammer Hi), and along the edges of the numerous 
streams which traverse h, and in its south -west comer, is much 
bamboo. Teak, vengai and ven-teak timber used to be extracted 
in large quantities, but the forest was grievously overworked and 
felling has now been stopped. A few years back a quantity of 
T. iomentom was felled for sleepers on the extension of the Madras 
Kailway up the west coast; but this wood, which is very 
common in the forest and is held in much esteem elsewhere, is 
for some reason almost unsaleable in Mysore. 'No timber at all is 
now being extracted from the Benne reserve and the only cattle 
which graze in it are those of the few Ohettis who cultivate some 
of the paddy-fiats within it. Minor produce is collected through 
the Karumbas who live in the forest. 

In 1871-72 a teak plantation was started in this forest ; but '• E ' eak 
though the expenditure on it has been heavy it does not give 
promise of much result since the trees, though healthy, grow with 
disappointing slowness. The soil is poor and moreover the rainfall 
is smaller, and the elevation greater, than teak cares for. Of late 
years endeavours have been made to induce the Kurumbas to 
help m raising teak seedlings. They have been given patches of 
bamboo jungle to cultivate on condition that iia. the second 
year they raised in pits, together with their crop, a certain 
number of tank seedlings supplied them from the Eorest depart- 
ment's nurseries. Up to date two small areas have been treated 
in this way ; but the Kurumbas do not take much interest in the 
matter and the teak is patchy and iudifferent. 

The Mudumalai forest {46,600 acres) is the janmam property of ^ d s l J mfllai 
the Nilambir Tirumalpad and was leased from him by fcrovernment 
for five years from 1857 and again for 99 years from October 1883 
at a rental of Es, 8,500 per annum. In 1801 the lease was revised 
K> include a block of three square xoUrs to the south-east; and 



220 



THE NILGIBIS. 



CHAP. V. 

Dgciduolh 

OS" THE 



at the same time sonio of the original conditions {which w«re 
undnly restrictive) were modified or cancelled, the rent, was raised 
to Es. 4,500; nnd it was stipulated that the lease should he renew- 
able at this samo figuro for a furthyr period of fifty years, after 
the expiry of the original term. 

The forest contains much teak, vengai, ven-teak and several 
of the Termination, particularly T. hmentom and T. Ohebula, while 
rathe valleys are blaokwood and the large thorny "bamboo (Bambusa 
arundinaeect) and on the drier uplands Anogemus latifoha and the 
smaller or male kind of bamboo {Dendrocalamus slnstus) in lesser 
qunutitics. On the northern border, next Mysore, large areas are 
covered only with coarse elephant grass through which fierce fires 
sweep annually, but in places the rather uncommon Shorea Talura 
grows gregariously imd is useful for posts, smaller timber, and 
mine props. In the ravines the teak does splendidly > but the 
forest has suffered in the past from frequent nrea aud from indis- 
criminate felling. It was originally leased to a timber merchant 
who removed as far as possible all accessible timber that had any 
value. It was then woked by Government and with the Benne 
forest contributed the greater part of the timber for the Welling- 
ton barracks. When it was first leased in 1863 Kururnbas were 
employed to search out, Mi and square any teak trees of sufficient 
size which thpy could find, and these were then dragged out by- 
elephants and sent to Masinigudi and Ootacamund for sale, Even 
in 1863 it was reported that at the close of the year's operations 
: little or no teak fit for extraction would be left ;' but felling went 
on none the less. In 1878 Major Jago put sonio check on this* 
recklessnesSj but between 1860 and 1882 the teak brought to the 
depots realized so lesa than *l\ lakhs. 

In 1885, on Mr. ©amble's advice, a beginning of better conser- 
vation, was made. Parts of the forest were divided off and trees 
were felled in them in a more systematic manner, all big timber 
and also all stunted aud useless trees being removed to give the 



221 



and mature teak, vengai, ven-teak and blackwood are also being CH.AP- V. 
extracted to the extent of 10,000 or 12,000 cubic JEeet per annum. Deciduoo* 
Except the blaokwood, this timber is dragged by elephants to of'the 
roadside dep8ts in the forest and there sold. The blackwood is Wynaad. 
particularly fine and is taken to Nanjang6d in Mysore, where it 
commands a ready sale at as much as Es. % a cubic foot for the 
European market. 

These operations, however, are being worked at a loss and it 
is under contemplation to extract some of the smaller timber as 1 
well. The forest is of little use for grazing as, the grass is long 
and rank. A few local cattle use it and the bullocks belonging 
to the numerous carts which ply from Mysore to the Wynaad and 
Ootaoaniuiid are grazed in it in considerable numbers on daily 
permits. The minor produce is of the ordinary kind. 

A small plantation of teak, 20 acres in extent, was formed m Tea> 
this forest in 18b'8~69 ; but, being outside the real influence of ?j££ Mon 
the south-west monsoon, it has not succeeded well, the growth 
being exceedingly slow, it has been thinned once or twice and 
is protected from fire ; but it is not being extended. 



-Z22 



THE NILOtSJfi. 



CHAPTER VI. 
OCCUPATIONS AND TBADE. 



CHAP. VI. 

Occupation £ 



Arts and 
industries. 



OccuPArio.vo— Ails and industries. TKAi>r Wkightej anji Measures.— Land 
measure — Measuies of capacity — Lineal measure-— Table of weights — Mone- 
tary terms. 

This peculiar circum stances uf the Nilgiris make the statistics of 
■ tli e occupations by which its inhabitants subsist very different 
from those of the average district on the plains. In the low 
country as a whole, seven-tenths of the people live by agricultural 
and pastoral pursuits and in some areas the figure rises to as high 
as four-fifths j whereas in the Nilgiris the proportion of them 
which subsists in these ways is as low as three-fifths, or less than 
in any Madras district except the Presidency town itself. The 
number of those who earn a living- by industrial pursuits is also 
proportionally lower than usual. 

On the other hand the percentage of those who subsist by 
domestic service, building, commerce, the transport of merchan- 
dise, cooly labour and the learned and artistic professions is 
higher than usual, while the existence of the cantonment at 
Wellington brings up beyond the normal the proportion of those 
who belong to the army. 

That these things should be so would be obvious, even 
without the aid of official statistics, to any one knowing the 
district- Nearly one-fourth of the people of the !Nilgiris fa 
higher figure than in any other district in Madras) live in its 
towns, and thus the urban occupations bear a higher ratio to the 
rural callings than elsewhere ; native industries are practically 
non-existent ; European residents and their domestic servants 
are unusually numerous ; and the district is not self-supporting 
and thus employs a large number of traders to organize its supply 
of necessaries and (in the absence of a railway further than 
Ooonoor) a still larger number of cart-men to bring up and 
distribute these. 

In no other 'Madras district are indigenous native industries 
so rare. The Kotas, who are but few in number, make a little 
rough pottery and leather, and some tools and implements for the 
tribes who are indigenous to fche plateau ; but otherwise almost 
every manufactured article on the hills is either brought up from 



OCCUPATIONS AND THADE. 22S 

the plains or made by immigrant artisans in the two towns of CHAP. yi. 
Ootacamund and Ooonoor. The weavers, dyers, cotton-cleaners, Ocoui'atjoss. 
toddy-drawers, fishermen, oil-pressers, rice-pounders, lime- ' 

buimers, bangle-inakers, jewellers, rope-makers, metal-workers, 
"basket" makers,, leather- workers, potters and others who form so 
considerable a proportion of the population of the districts in the 
plains are extremely rare in the Nilgiris. There is, for example, 
perhaps not a single working weaver or dyer on the whole of the 



Such industries ■ as do exist and flourish are almost entirely 
those which are due to European enterprise and capital or are 
necessitated by the existence of Europeans in the district, and 
most of these have been referred to sufficiently elsewhere. They 
comprise the brewing at the Nilgiri and Rose and Crown breweries ; 
the tea-factories at the Devarshola, Kodanad, Ouchterlony Valley,; 
Liddelisdale and other estates ; a few dairies, soda-water factories 
and printing-presses, the Cinchona Factory at Naduvattam and 
the Cordite Factory at Aravankad. 

When, the hills first became known to "Europeans, enthusiasts 
believed that the inexhaustible supply of water-power afforded 
by the streams upon them would lead to the establishment there 
of mills and factories of every kind. - But the absence (until 
comparatively recently) of any railway to them and the high rates 
of wages demanded by native labour on them were sufficient 
obstacles to the realization of any such dream. The ordinary 
native greatly dislikes life on the cold plateau away from his 
temples) bazaars and relations ; the cost of living there, necessi- 
tating as it does warm clothing and a substantial houso, is higher 
than on the plains ; and consequently wages of all kinds rule very 
high. Those for unskilled labour are about double what they are 
in the low country. 

The trade of the district is of no particular interest. The 
exports include the coffee, tea, cinchona, potatoes, cordite, beer 
and quinine which are grown or manufactured on it, and the 
imports comprise almost every necessary of life which is consumed 
within it, including (since, see p. 165, the country does not grow 
nearly enough food to support its population) large quantities of 
grain from Coimbatore and Mysore State. 

Complete statistics are not available either for imports or 
exports. Those for rail-borne trade are collected, but not those 
for merchandise which travels by road; and the proportion 
of the trade which is carried by the railway is small. The 
outlet and inlet of the eastern part of the district, for example, is 



224 



THE NILGIKXS. 



CHAP. VI. 
Trade. 



Wrights and 

Land 

measure, 



the Kotagiri g*Mt ; the Ooonoor ghit road carries an immense 

traffic notwithstanding the fact that the railway runs alongside it ; 
a great many carts travel between Mysore and Ootacamund by the 
G-ndalur and Sigur ghats; and the whole of the exports and .im- 
ports of the Wynaad and Gachterlony Valley go and come by road. 

The trade, wholesale and retail, on the plateau is largely in 
the hands of Musahnans, and these people are also the money- 
lenders. In the Wynaad the Mappillaa do a great portion of the 
trade. 

Well-attended markets are held once a week at Ootacamund, 
Oooiiooz-j Kotagiri and Grudalur, the last of which supplies the 
Wynaad and the Ouchterlony Valley. Those at Ootacamund and 
Ooonoor bring in the municipalities which manage them an annual 
revenue of over Es. 20,000 each, a higher figure than is realized 
in any town ia the Presidency except Trichinopoly. 

The table of land measures in uae in the district is as 
under : — 

28 adis, or country feet = 
1 square k61 
100 irtilfe 



Measures of 
capacity. 



1 k61 ~ 24 English feet. 

1 guli = 576 sq. ft. 

I cawnie = 57,600 sq. ft. or 

1-322 aores. 
3-82 acres = 166,464 sq.ft. 



1 balla 

The revenue accounts used to be kept in terms of cawnies ? 
suSdivided into annas and pies : — 
1 pie = 300 square feet. 
12 piea = I anna or 3,600 square feet. 
16 annas = 1 eawnie or 57,600 square feet. 

A. cawnie is to the English acre as 160 is to 121, and to 
convert cawnies into acres, the usual course was to multiply the 
cawnie by J 80 and divide "by 121. Since the Eevenue Survey 
was iufcroducedj acres and cents have been used, as elsewhere, in all 
official measurements. For house sites, the measure known as a 
manai or ground ( — 60 X 40 feet, or 2,400 square feet) is used. 
The measures of capacity are : — 

— 1 ullok, 
= I padi or msasura. 
S measures ~ 1 markal. 

5 m&rkals = 1 para. 

•100 markdls = 1 f 

50 jodis (Mysore measures) or 100 
Madras half-measures = 



' This FseofcioM. ie taken, from Mr. Grigg'e District Mcmuai, 



OCCUPATIONS AND TBADB. 



225 



Thus tlie Nilgivi measure is only half that of Madras. A OHAP. vx 
Madras half-measure filled to overflowing is used in all transac- Weights anxj 
tions. Its cubic contents equal 50*17 inches. In the weekly Ma ^™ B . 
markets held at the several stations and other parts of the district 
this* measure is used in selling articles such as chillies, pepper, 
turmeric, and other condiments, which, are generally purchased 
by weight in other places. Gfhi is also sold by measure. Oil is 
sold by the Imperial quart bottle, of which 25 make one kodam 
or pot. The indigenous tribes of the district have a measure 
called kolagam, nearly equivalent hx size and contents to the 
Madras hall-measure. 



The measures of length are : — 

angulams or inches 
12 do. 

18 do. 

2 cubits or 3 English, feet 

The ordinary table of weights is : 

! pal am 



o aeers or (3s J 

lif- visa or 50 palams = 

8 visa = 

'20 mannds = 

Jewellers use the following :-— 
32 kimdumani {Abrm preeaforiiw) seeder 

10 varahas = 



1 jan or span. 
1 adi or foot. 
1 mura or cubit. 
1 gajam or yard. 

3 rupees' weight. 

1 seer. 

1 VJ88. 

1 tfik. 

1 inaund. 

3 baram or candy. 

I star pagoda oi 
varaha. 

1 palam (1£ 
02. avoirdu- 
pois). 

1 seer. 



Lineal 
measure. 



Tabic of 
tv eights. 



8 palauie 

The following variations of the ordinary monetary terms are Monetary 
in popular use : — i 6rma * 



1 kaa (pies) 
8 diiddms 
4 annas 
4 bellis 
•3| rupees 

Four annas is known a 
chikkahana. 



dodda-hana 



1 duddu. 
1 annu. 
1 belli. 
1 rupee. 
3 Tar&ha. 

and two 



TH3S NILOiKtS. 

OHAPTEft VIJ. 

MEANS OP COMMUNICATION 



The Danaa- 
yaSsank£ttai- 
Ddnncl path. 



•Ha 

SilradapatM 
pans. * 



.Roads — The Datmayafeankottui-D^nfid path. — The Snad:ipai.t,i pats — TUc Hist 
Kdtagiri ghat — The present Kolagm ghat — The first Goonoor ghilt~The 
piesent Coonour g'hafc — Tho Sigiir ghat — The Sispara yhat— The iu*st Otidalur 
ghat — The present fiiiilahir ghit — lioada on the plateau — Wynaatl roads — 
Management of the roads — Avenues — Travellers' Imogalows aud chattrams 
--Table of distances. Hailwaym— The Nilgiri Kailway— -SIteteh history of it 
— Extension to Ootacaamnd — Projected railways. 

In the Nilgiris roads Hare always been a vital part of the 
district's existence. In the plains (as some one has said) c all 
India's a road in the dry wea>ther ' and carta can generally get 
along after a fashion across country ; but a steep-sided plateau 
with an undulating surface intersected in every direction by 
streams and bogs requires made roads and plenty of them if its 
existence is not to he crippled. 

Something- has already "been seen iu Chapter IX of the manner 
is which the advance of the district followed directly on the 
construction of the first roads up to and across it, and the subject 
may now be considered in rather mors detail. 

The earliest European visitors clambered up to Diinhatti and 
JfoStagiri by the rough path which led from the now deserted 
village of Datinayakankdttai (near the confluence of the Bhavani 
and the Moyar) to Den&d. This was 80-§- miles long and so steep 
that laden cattle could get up it only with difficulty. 

Some of the first visitors descended the plateau again by the 
almost equally unformed track (called in the old records ' the 
Kilurpass* or ' the Sundapatti pass') which ran from Manja- 
kanibai (Kilur), near the Kundah river ravine, down to Sunda- 
patti in the Bhavani valley, whence paths led east to Coimbatore 
and west to Vtanirgh&t in Malabar district through the dense 
jangle. This track along the Bhavani valley from. Coimhatore 
to Malabar was for many years a favourite route with the people 
who used to smuggle to the latter district the excellent tobacco 
grown in the former in the days when the sovereign herb was a 
Government monopoly in Malabar; and it is still used by 
hundreds of pack cattle to carry dry grain from the one to the 
o-ther. As early as 1822 a travellers' bungalow had been built 



MEAW8 OF COMMiranJATIGK. 227 

near Manjakambai, 1 and Mr. Sullivan, then Collector, so improved CHAP. VII. 
the track about 182(1 p that it is still known sometimes as ' SulH- Koabb. 
van's ghat.' In. 1847 Major Ouchterlony said 3 ( the remains of a 
very good road still exist from the top of this ghat all the way 
to Oota,carnund, but it has become impassable in many places 
owing to bogs having formed in the hollows and closed over it. J 
This road and the Sundapatti ghat are now no more than foot- 
paths. 

The first "bridle-path to be made to the hills was that The first 
from Sh'unrag'ai (near Mettupalaiyam) to Bimhatti (where the hat**' 1 '" 
first European residence on the plateau was built) and its 
neighbour Kotagiri. This path was duo to the initiative of Mr. 
Sullivan, who suggested its construction in March 1819,, within 
a few months after his first visit to the plateau. It was made 
by some Pioneers under the command of Lieutenant Evans 
Macpherson and was passable in 1821 and reported as completed 
in 1823. Travellers 3 bungalows were built at Sirunmgai at the 
fooGj in which c servants are stationed, with every convenience 
for the reception of travellers, who are particularly recommended 
to refresh themselves there previous to ascending; ' at Serulu, 
' a delightful situation, amidst lofty wood, about 4,000 feet above 
the plain;' at Arivenu (sometimes called Jakkaneri), ahout 
5 3 400 feet ; and at JJimhatti at the top. That at Arivenu had 
originally been the quarters of Lieutenant Macpherson when: he 
was making the path. 1 The path was 16'-| miles in length and 
l " the whole way one continued ascent and descentj thus rendering 
the passage excessively tedious. 55 The journey was performed 
on borsehaclc or in a palanquin, the latter taking twelve hours. 
This continued to he the chief route to the hills from the 
Ooimbatore side until the first Cooaoor ghat was completed in 
1832. 

In 1830 Mr. James Thomas, then Collector, made another 
path from Kotagiri direct to Metfiupalaiyain. This was only ten 
miles long, and thus was exceedingly steep ; and it was never 
much used. 

The present K6tagiri ghat, which is a metalled cart-road 21 The 
miles in length, generally seventeen feet wide ; and with a, kIi^! 

ghat. 

1 Wai'cVa roporfc printed in the District MatmaJ, ippenciix, lxvii. 

- Hough's Letters on th& Neilgher?i&s s 4&. 

A His survey report, MJ.l.S,, xv, ?5, 

* Hough's Letterb on (fie Neilgherries, SO-M, which partly follows Ward's 
report d-bove cited. 

B Jervis, 134. 



^S8 THS HILGHKIS. 

CHAP. vn. gradient of one in seventeen, was made from BJStagiri to Mettu- 

EoADa. palaiyam in 1872-75, and was traced and constructed by Major 

" Morant, K"R 3 District Engineer. It was originally only eight 

or nine foet wide. In 1881 it was handed oyer to the District 

Board, and it was severely injured by the storm of November in 

that year. Between 1885 and 1888 it. was widened to its present 

breadth and metalled, the improvements costing Rs. 32,000, and 

from 1889 it- was maintained as a metalled road, Tt is little used 

except by the residents of Kotagin and the planters thereabouts. 

Tlvi present The first ghat from Mettuualaiyam to Ooonoor (now known 

Coemoor as < the old Coonoor ghat ') was begun in 1829. It was due to 

ghat. ^ r g_ -^ Lushington, tlieu Governor, who in a minute of 

(September 1829 condemned in. strong term? the defects of Mac- 

pherson's bridle-path above mentioned. He directed Lieutenant 

0.3?. LeHardy to trace a path up tho Ooonoor ravine, and this 

was done the nest year. Construction was begun at once with 

a detachment of Pioneers under LeHardy and Oapfcain Murray 1 

whose head- quarters were at Ooonoor, and on tho ^9th December 

1882 the road was reported to have been completed. 

The alignment is very faulty : the average gradient is about 
one in twelve, but near the top it is :is steep as one in ftve^ and 
in places is reversed. Ft took eight piirs of cattle to get a laden 
cart up it s and consequently almost all the traffic was earned by 
pact-bullocks, which ascended it { by thousands on the Ootaca- 
mnnd market day, and indeed almost daily.' Rut the route had 
the great advantages over the old K6tagiH ghat that it ran more 
directly towards Ootacamund and that there was a travellers' 
bungalow at Ooonoor, whereas Kotagiri boasted no such conveni- 
ence ; and it was more popular than the Sigur and G-udalur ghats 
referred to below because the belt of malarial jungle at its foot 
was so narrow that travellers could pass through it without 
spending a "night there. 

Tt became almost at once the chief route from Madras to 
Ootacamund, audit led to the abandonment of tho Sundapattl 
pass, the neglect of the old .Kotagiri ghat, and the foundation of 
Ooonoor as a sanitaiium. All along the road between Madras 
and the Nilgiris Mr. Lushington. pasted two sets of palanquin 
hearers whose services were obtainable by application to the 
various Collectors, and the journals of that day 3 were jubilant 
at the Eaot that the journey could now be accomplished in as 

1 Jervis' book, 130 ff. Pago 36 of this aaya Captains Murray and E&sfaneiil did 
the work. 

a Gaa m& the Sim Mountains, 263. 

3 See, for example, Asiatic Journal, x, 103. 



HS&K8 OB 1 COMMUNICATION 229 

little as lour clays and for something less than Rs. 150. The CHAP, Vir. 
Bhav&ni used to be crossed at Mectupalaiyam in basket-boata, "Roads. 
but in 1840 the first arched masonry bridge was erected at a 
cost of Es. ISjO^O. It was washed away iu 1847 but rebuilt. 
One of the arches was recently again washed away and has been 
replaced by a steel girder. 

The existing' Ooonoor ghat is a splendid metalled cart-road, The present 
eighteen feet wide with a ruling gradient of 1 in 18^, and is 16 Co ,°f ooiC ' 
miles in length from Ooonoor to Kallar at the foot of the hills, 
whence a nearly level stretch of live miles more loads to Mettn- 
palaiyara.. It crosses the old ghat at nine different points. Its 
chief defect is its zigzags of which there are no less than twelve. 
It was completed in 187 ! and was traced, and mainly constructed, 
by Lieutenant (afterwards Colonel) G-.V. Law, who subsequently 
cut the { Law's ghat ' to Tiodaikanal. His name in perpetuated 
by the cascade called " Law's fall ' on the lower part of the 
Ooonoor river near the "Weulock bridge by which his road crosses 
that stream. 

The completion of the road was hailed with delight by every 
one on the lulls, for through carriage traffic was now possible 
between Ootacamnnd and the terminus of the Madras iiailway 
at Coimbatore and s the stoppage at Ooonoor, hesitation whether 
to take palanquin, tonjon or raunekiel down the ghat, disputes 
about coolies and several smaller inconveniences' were at length 
things of the past. This ghat remained the chief route to tbe 
hills until the railway to Coonoor was opened, in 1899. 

The handsome suspension bridge over the Kallar river was 
built in 1804. at a cost of Us. 56,000 to replace a wooden bridge 
on masonry piers which had been washed away by floods in 
1891. 

The great beanfcy of the scenery along this road has 
frequently aroused enthusiasm. Sir Edwin Arnold J says — 

■ As you approach that gigantic wali through the belt of primeval 
invest which girths its foot — a tangled wilderness of tropical growth, 
teeming with wild beasts and haunted by malaria — it seems impossi- 
ble that any road can exist to lead to the summit. Bat the sturdy 
little ponies hitched to the pole of the tonga gallop off from Khillar, 
after ■aviaous kick or two j and you 'begin to ascend imperceptibly by 
cunning slopen and sudden advantages taken of >'left and ledge, until 
you lock down through a vist-; of bamboos and palms upon the plain 
and the fever-belt. The way lies upward through a long forest-clad 
gorg^j fitnddnd with rocks and waterfalls, and surmounted by peaks 
which catch and hold the clouds. From the thickets on either hand 

3 India ftwisitM (1886), 2§5, 



ghM. 



gSO THB NILG-IBXS. 

CHAP. YIL monkeys and jungle-fowl break ,- strange birds call and sing- behind 
Eoabb. the veil of the thick creepers and rattans ; the cry of wild animals is 

heard at intervals, with the noise of water and an occasional crashing 

tree. At every third mile the lean but plucky little ponies are 
changed, and the ascent continues uninterrupted, except by trains of 
native carts, drawn by those hardy milk-white bullocka of Mysore 
with the crooked, coloured horns, which enabled Xippoo Sultan to 
make such long marches against us. Here and there occurs a native 
village with its little baaaar perched upon some shoulder of the 
magnificent glen, and parties of nuked coolies are everywhere seen 
metalling and repairing tfie blood-red road, that windy for thirty-one 
(si'e) long and wonderful miles why wards to Coonoor. You paws in this 
way all the zones of Indian vegetation, from the almost fierce 
luxuriance of the dark jungle of the plain to the tigs, bamboos and 
acacias of the lower spurs, then to the region of the coffee gardens, 
and, finally, to the tea plantations, and to a new floral world where 
Australian blue gums and wattles dominate,' 

This constant; change in the vegetation is, indeed, one of the 
chief: charms of the journey and, as Sir Moimtstuart Grant Duff 
said, 'the whole road is one long botanical debauch.' 
The &ig&v Before the present Ooonoor ghat was made, the old Coonoor 

ghat had a formidable rival in the Sigur ghat, which learls from 
the northern crest of tbe plateau down to Sigtir at the foot of the 
bills and is continued via Maainigu&i and Tippakadu to Ghmdlu- 
pet, Mysore town and Bangalore. Though very steep, tins is 
practicable for carts with two pair? of bullocks and in the fifties 
the authorities in Mysore made groat efforts to facilitate journeys 
through that State and an enterprising transit company earned 
passengers from Madras via Bangalore through by this route in 
less time than it took them to get to Ooimbatore and np by 
Ooonoor. The fact that carts could use the Sigur road also led 
to the greater part of the supplies for the district, and all 
commissariat; stores, being taken up that way ; and much teak 
was also carried up from the Benne and Mudumalai forests.' 

Ji\om the earliest times a path had led from Sigtir up to 
Rillikal, where a travellers' bungalow had been constructed, if; 
was four miles in length and exceedingly steep; but being the 
nearest route to Bangalore had been dignified by the name of 
' the Sigur Pass.'- Another path ran from Kalhatfi to 
Sembanattam, and thence to Mysore territory. 3 

i Pharoah's Gazetteer (1855), 474; "Report on Important Public Wmits "» 
1854, 159; BaiSu© (2nd edn,}, 19. 

a Bough, 48} Baikio (1st ecSn.), -i; Jervis, j.3ii ■, Uepor!> ot 1&4-4 oa fcae 
Medical. Topography of the hills, 6. 

3 'Ward's report already cited. 



MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 281 

Tlie Billikal path was so bad (one report says that in wet CHAP. TO. 
weather it "became so slippery that it was really dangerous even Hoads, 
for foot-passengers to ascend) that in 1838 tie existing ghat was " 

begun. It was traced by Captain Underwood of the Madras 
Engineers; the officer who built St. Stephen's at Ootacamund, 
and was carried out by him and the Sappers and Miners under 
his command, their camp being at ICalhatti. It was finished m 
1888. The road in continuation of it turns suddenly west a mile 
or two short of Sembazia.tram and makes a long; detour to avoid 
crossing- the 'Mysore Ditch ! at the bottom of which the Moyar 
runs .some y()0 feet below the level of the surrounding country. 
At one time proposals were made to carry the road down into 
the Ditch and up the other side, which would have shortened the 
distance to Mysore by nine miles and avoided much elephant" 
infested jungle ; x but they were never carried out. The exist- 
ing bridge over the Moyar at Tippakadu was built in 1897 at a 
cost of Bs. 7,000. The original bridge there was erected in 1841 
and washed away in IS47 ; after which Major Cotton put up a 
new one which apparently iasted till 1877, when the woodwork 
had to be renewed. The bridge over the Sigur river was 
constructed in 1889 at an outlay of Es, 10,000 in place of an 
earlier lattice bridge made in 1854. 

The gradient of the Sigur ghat is usually 1 in 12, hut in parts 
it is as steep as 1 in 10 and laden carts travelling from Mysore to 
Oofcacanmnd usually prefer to go all the way round by the Gta&a- 
lur ghat. In 1840, however, Lady dough and family drove up 
it c in their carriage and four horses, and throughout the heavy 
carriage got on with great ease. 5 e 

The head of the ghat is about four miles from Gotacamimd ; 
at Eaihatti (six miles) is a travellers' bungalow; Sigur, at the 
foot of the descent, where there used co be another bungalow, 
is thirteen miles; at Masiuigudi (sixteenth mile) is a second 
bungalow; and at Tippakadu, which is 24 miles from Ootacanrand) 
is a third. 

The country at the foot of the ghit is a malarious jungle 
which has always been infested with elephants. Tn former 
times they sometimes — 

' Flayed sad pranks nt the expense of invalids seeding the hills. 
The great bucks are met sdugly on the roads whisking* the fifes with 
half a tree for a laa, and a poor lady, having thus enoounterad one the 

E .Report on MecL Topog-. above quoted, 1. 

a Astatic Journal, xsxi, 129- Majot'-G-enetal Sir Hugh Googh, k.c.b. : 
(afterwards Lord Utmgk), was then m command of tin* MyBore Division, the 
head-quartois! o£ which -were at Bangalore. 



332 the unioiKrs. 

CHAP. VII, other day, took refuge with all hex attendants in the thickets. The 

EoAsa. beast went up to he? palanquin and twirled it by one j)ole over his 

head with much glee, then by the other pole till it gave way, and 

then danced upon it with much delight, and capored into the jungle, as 

she said, with a borse laugh. f l « 

The Sispfcii About the same time that the Sigur ghat was made the 

sm ' Sitipara ghit was completed. 

This rati west-south-west from Ootaoamund tu Avalanche 
(1M| miles); thence up the Kandahs to the spot now called 
BangMTappaL (nine miles mure); to Sispara in the extreme 
so nth -western corner of: the plateau (another nine miles) ; and 
thonce down a sieep descent to Walaghat (half way down the 
slopes) and SlnSlahal at the bottom of them, 10J miles more. It 
is now practicable for lightly-laden carts as far as Avalanche (16 
miles by the improved brace) and is a maintained bridle-path as 
far as Sispara ; bat the ghat portion is absolutely impassable, 
except 011 foot, being overgrown with dense jungle. Up to 
Sispara it is much used by shooting-parties ; and two private 
shooting huts stand not far south of it at Pirmand and .Bison 
Swamp, 

This Sispara ghat, originally known as the Knndah ghat, was 
suggested in November 1831 by Mr. S, B. Lushington, then 
Governor of Madras, with the idea of providing a speedy route 
from Calicut (whither invalids from Bombay could easily travel 
by steamer) to Ootacamund. Major Orowe } Commandant of the 
Nilgiris, Lieutenant LeHardy, the tracer of the old Ooonoor ghat 
then in. progress, and Captain Murray of the Pioneers already 
mentioned searched the western side of the plateau for a practi- 
cable ghat and at length beard of the Siap&ra path } which, though 
greatly overgrown, was then used by tobacco-smugglers. 

Lieutenant LeHardy traced a line down this and Captain 
Murray and his Pioneers were entrusted with the construction of 
the road. They established oampa at Avalanche and Sispara 
(which latter became known as Murray pet) and between the 10th 
of January and the 31st of May 1832, with the aid of coolies and 
'tank-diggers,' they succeeded in opening up a path of a hind 
clown the slopes and connecting it with the roads in the plains. 3 
The line of this was so infested with elephants and tigers 
tliat the Collector of Malabar obtained sanction to the purchase 
of five jingalls and the employment of ten peons to shoot these 
beasts and protect the coolies, 

' MaopheraoB-'a Memorials of Service in Xitcka, (Murray, XS85), 13, 
* Jertis, 126-7, l&t~2. 



MEANS OP COMMUNICATION, 283 

The rains then set in and stopped work, and later on the OHAP.VH. 
Pioneers were diverted to the widening of the Ooonoor gnat. Roads, 
No move was done to the Sispara g-lidt until 1836, when, in ~™~ 
consequence of a minute of Sir Frederick Adam's, work was 
begun again. One of the arguments in favour of this line was 
that it led, at a distance of fifteen miles from the base of the 
hills, to the Beypore river, which was navigable thence to the 
soa and by the lie]p of which it was believed that it would be 
possible to travel from Sispara to Calicut in one day. 

Br. Benza, surgeon to Sir Frederick Adam, passed along 
the road in 1S3G on a geologizing tour, find his account l shows 
what had then been done. The track was so narrow that two 
people could not ride abreast along it. The principal obstacle 
was the ( ladder hill ' near the middle of the descent, which was 
surmounted by steep zigzags at very acute angles. The Pioneers 
were camped at Walaghat s half way* down, in huts scattered 
through the jungle, the site being too steep and confined for any 
regular lines. 

The road was finished m 1888, the gradient being one in 
nine, and bungalows for travellers were built at Sh61aka\ 
Walaghat, Sisp&ra and Avalanche. Bat the extraordinarily 
heavy rainfall at that end of the Kundahs necessitated large 
annual repairs in subsequent years ; the trace was so steep that 
it was seldom used for laden cattle; and the climate was so 
severe and the shelfcor en route so insufficient that Europeans 
often could not get coolies to come with them to carry their 
baggage. The ghat thus failed to fulfil the high hopes which 
had been formed of it. As early as 1844 it was declared 2 to be 
1 rarely traversed except at the height of the dry season,' and it 
was eventually abandoned. The bungalow at Sispara was acci- 
dentally burnt down and was never rebuilt. 

The GKidalur ghat runs down the western side of the plateau Tho first 
from Nadnvattam to Gudalur, where it connects with the roads G ^^ 6 ^ h4 *« 
leading to Mysore via Tippak&du, to Sultan's Battery, to Vayitri 
aad the Tamrasseri (Tambracherry) pass, and to Calicut via the 
Karkur ghii The first track at this point was made from a 
grant of Es. 5,000 obtained by Mr. Sullivan in 1823. Hough's 
Letters, written in 1826,, make no mention of it, so that if finished 
by then it cannot have been much nsed ; but Mr. S. E. Lushing- 
ton, the Governor; ascended and descended by ic in 1829, when 
it was almost completed. B was made by the Pioneers. Writing 

1 MJ.L.S., iy, 276 ff. 

% Report oft Med. Topog. already vh&A, S, 



234 THE NILGIRIS. 

CSCAP. VII. in 1833, Baikie calls it and the old Ooonoor ghat tlie two chief 
Roads. routes to the hills, but says it was exceedingly steep, being only 
4£- (later accounts say 5^-) miles long with a gradient oi' about 
one in lour, and in wet weather vory slippery. , 

Bungalows had been built hy then at Gudaldr and Nadu- 
vattam, bat the great objection to the route to travellers from 
Mysore was the fact that the road at the foot of the hills led 
through the extremely malarious Wynaad jungle. Baikie's book 
contains elaborate instructions to the wayfarer who might 
unluckily be compelled to spend a night in those pestiferous 
forests, warning him to keep awake and moving about ail the 
time, hare a large fire lighted, avoid all stimulants, but c if 
accustomed to the use of tobacco, light his segar/ and consult 
a doctor the moment he reached Ootacaniuud. The emphasis he 
laid on the need for every precaution was probably largely 
due to the fact that his friend Br. A. T. Christie (mentioned on 
p. 178 as the man who sent for the first tea-plants brought to the 
plateau, and clearly an officer of much promise) had died of 
malaria contracted when passing through these jungles; but the 
danger of the journey was so well understood that the palanquin- 
bearers were posted in such a way that no one need spend a night 
in the forests, and travellers were strictly enjoined so to arrange 
matters that these men might be able to got out ol the jungle 
before dusk. People from the west coast were obliged to use 
this route; but European troops marching from Bangalore to 
Ootacamund were sent all the way round by Mettupalaiyam and 
the old Ooonoor gait. When the "Kundah ghat was iirst opened, 
traffic from the west coast for some time followed it in preference 
to the €rndalur route and about 1846 the tappal runners were 
transferred to it from the latter. 1 This latter then became neg- 
lected, the ferries along the roads connecting with it being 
irregularly worked and the jungle encroaching seriously upon it, 
Thia was the more deplorable in that the continuation from 
JSF&duvattam to Ootacamund had about this time been repaired 
and made practicable for carts. 2 
The present ^ u ^ ie s ^i es ^ e opening up ol the district was actively 

G-iStlaMr ghat, pushed on, and among other works the present Gudalur ghat was 
made. It was started in 1865, the trace being made by Colonel 
Farewell, M.S.O., and was opened to cart traffic in 1870 ; but 
later reports showed that it was not really completed then, por- 
tions of it being only eight feet wide and. much rock being left 

1 Ouehterloay's acrvey report, MJ.LS-., sy, 78, 
* 2 Ibid. 



MEASTS 01T COMMUNICATION. 235 

unremoved. The continuation from Naduvattam to Ootsmniund CHAP. vil. 

was a.lso widened and improved iu 1870 ; but it was not metalled, Eoabs, 
and in 1882 was declared to "be only a fair-weather route, 
' though carta have struggled along it even in wet weather.' 
Proposals to improve it from the revenue of the Government 
Cinchona Plantations to which it led were negatived. 

When the Wynaad gold-boom of 1879-82 began, complaints 
of the state of the road from Ootacamuud to Gudalur were loud 
and long and Government sanctioued larg'e sums for its improve- 
ment, By 1885 Bs. 1,83,250 had been spent upon it. The 
ghat portion is now nine miles long with a maximum gradient of 
1 in ID, and the whole section from Gudalur to Ootacamund is 
admirably metalled and maintained throughout. A bridle-path 
on steeper gradients provides a shorter route for foot-passengers 
and horses. This is greatly used by coolies passing from, the 
Wynaad to Ootacamuud, and in the monsoon the whole country 
is so swept by bitter winds and rain that, though shelters exist 
at intervals, numbers of natives have died along the path from 
cold and exposure. The number of the shelters is now being 
increased. 

The bridge over the Paikara river, twelve miles from Ootaca- 
mimd, was made in 1857. Up to at least as late as 1830 l the 
only means of crossing the Pail^ara in flood^time was a basket- ;■ 

boat. This was replaced, some time before 1834, by a Govern- 
ment ferry consisting of a platform laid upon two boats which 
was worked by hauling on a cable of twisted rattan fixed from 
bank to bank. The platform of the 1857 bridge was partly 
washed away in .Time 1896 and the height of the piors was then 
raised by three feet. 

The He of the various main roaiis on the plateau is sufii- Eoadson. the 
cientlv indicated in the map at the end of this volume and need pktcao. 
not be described in detail. Nor are their histories of individual 
interest, practically all of them having grown by gradual 
expenditure from footpaths to bridle-paths and from bridlo-paths 
to road?. Exceptions to this slow process of evolution are the 
driving roads which have been initiated in or round about 
Ootacamuud itself by the Governors of Madras from Sir M. E. 
Grant Duff onwards, and have been named after them tho Grant 
Duff, Conuemnra, Weulock, Havelock and Ampthill Eoads. 

The road from Gudalur to Nadgani and thence three milos Wynaad 
down the Kkrkiir ghat as far as the Malabar frontier was r <» d «* 
made in 1805, and the wooden girder bridge at Sipatti was 
completed by Captain Ooningham, R.E., in 1866. The original 

1 Aaiativ Jbttrwalj iii, 313 i£. 



236 



TUB SILGIBI& 



CHAP. TO, 

ItcuDe. 



Management 
of fcbe roads. 



Travellers* 
btmgalowB 
*nd ehat- 
ftr»ms* 



road onwards from JSTadgani to the Malabar frontier near 
Oheramba'di was made "by the planters in that part of the 
Wynaad, and the Planters' Association received a grant for its 
upkeep until 1879-80, when, the road was transferred to the 
District Board. *' 

"When the gold-boom drew attention to tlio indifferent state 
of the communications with (lie Wynaad, Government resolved 
to put the whole line from Ootaeaimmd to Oalicut, via Grudalur 
and Yayitri, into good order. On the Ootacamnnd-G6dalui* 
section of this Ks. 1,88,950 had (as abovo mentioned) been 
spent by 1885 and on the Yayitri-Calicut section Es. 3,19,788. 
The (Hidalur-Vayitri section was then taken up and estimates for 
Es. 4,10,000 for an eighteen feet road on a partly new trace 
were sanctioned. These were subsequently revised on more 
than one occasion and eventually the work, which was completed 
in November 1802, cost Es. 6,60,700. The Ohdladi bridge at 
the Malabar frontier was included in this, and cost Es. 32,750 
Owing to the present desolate state of the country through which 
the road runs in tins district, it is now but little used, and one 
hardly meets a cart a mile along it. 

The Gudalur-Tippafe&du road was formed, bridged and partly 
metalled between 1865 and 1867. 

All the roads in the district are now under the care of the 
District Board except that from Ootaeamund to Kallarafcthe 
bottom of the Ooonoor ghat, which is maintained by the Public 
Works department, That department receives one-third of the 
tolls collected along it. Besides the main and second-class cait- 
roads, many miles of bridle-paths are maintained by the District 
Board in every direction about the hills. 

Avenues exist along only eighteen miles of the roads, it being 
held that they are not required in this temperate climate and that 
the constant drip from them is very injurious to the road-surface. 

Particulars of the travellers' bungalows in the district, with 
the accommodation available in each, will he found in the separate 



Qoonoar laluk. 
Aravankad. 
BatEyar. 
Grajgmove. 



Seventeen chattraxns, as shown in the margin, are maintained 
Oot«cammi& tahd . Coonocr taluk. b >" ihQ District Board. Except 
those at Tlppahadu and Masini* 
gudij these receive an annual 
contribution of Es. 30 each 
(N&dgani, Es. 70) from Govern- 
ment tow&rds the cost of their 
establishment. The (Hdal&r 
and DeVala chattrams were 



Hamilton's. 

Masiaigndi. 

Nada-vattam. 

STanjanad. 

OucMejiony's. 

Paikara. 

TippaMfht. 

Sandy JSuuali. 

Sfctlr. 



Yellanhalli. 

QMal&r tahtJc. 

1)6 viila. 

CtfidaWr. 

H4dgani. 



MEANS off COMMUNICATION. 



237 



constructed fi'om local funds in 3 879 ; that aL Nadganijwas trans- CHAP. VII. 
ferred from Malabar district iu 1873 ; and the rest; were Boabs. 
taken over from Government iu 1871. None of tie ehattraras " 

provide food; they are merely intended os shelters. 

The following table o£ distances along fclic chief routes 1 may TaLleof 

bo of use: ~ distances. 

.Kurlonga. 



JSVoffi, 


To 


.Mile 


Oofcacamund 


Goonooi' 


13. 


Counoor 


JCallar 


15 


Kallai 


MSttnpalaiyam 


(i 


Ooticaumud 


Kalliatifci 


U 


Kallmtti 


Masinigadi ... 


10 


MasiniSTnh 


Tippafcadu .. 


7 


Tipj.ro. kacln 


Mysore Cil-y 


■is 


Oofacamitud 


Paikara 


]2 


Vaikaiii 


5faduva,ttam 


B 


Nadavattain 


G&daliir 


o 


Gildal&r 


Nadgiim 


n 


NYidgam 


Devala 


a 


Devala. 


(JhSrarabadi 


n 


Ghfoimbad i 


Cho'Iadi bridge 


2 


(judat&r 


tTellakotfcai ... 


.L2 


Nellakottai 


District Iroimov ... 


5 


(HciaNit 


Tippahadn 

Calicut (by 


11 




Earkfir gh&fc ) ... 


e;> 


Ootaoaiinmt.1 


Paikara. falls 


17 


» 


Atralannhe 


iu 




Kotaglri 


38 


v 


D6vash61a 


10 


I)6vashoJa 


Mllflr 


:i 


mst&e 


Kulakambai 


a 


OyUcamuud 


Trilanhalli 


d 


Yellanhalli 


KatGri 


5 


Kateri 


Kula-kauibai 


5 


Co ouo or 


Kat^ri toll-bar 


G 


., 


Dolpliin'a Koso 





» 


Kdtagm 


12 


KdJtagiri 


KoManad 


10 


„ 


M6tj.iTpalaiyatn 


20 



The only railway in the district is that winch runs from tlte Railways. 
terminus ol the Madras Kailway at Hettnpakiyam up the ghat TlwNHgiri 
to Coonoor. It is 16'90 miles in length "between these points "" 1, ' s5 ' - 
and is on the metre gauge ; and the ghat portion, which begins at 
Kailir, five miles from Me'ttnpalaiyam, is on a ruling gradient of 1 
ia 12^ and worked on the Abt system, an improved modification 
of the. Ttigi rack -Tail principle. It is now being extended to 
Ootaesmmid, and the question is under consideration whether the 

1 Kindly i'urnishtid by the District Board Engineer. 



238 



THE NILGHBIS. 



CHAP. Til. "whole lino might not be worked by electric power generated hy 

Kauwattb. the Coonoor or Kateii rivers. 

Sketch his- Schemes for a railway up the Ooouoor ghat elate from 1854, 

tovyo ic. before the present ghat road -was "built, when it was proposed to 

lay out a series of doable-railed inclined planes rip the spurs and 

pull loaded wagons up them by the weight of tank-wagons filled 

with water and connected with the loads bv a rope running 

round a wheel at the top oJ: the incline. 

The matter was first seriously considered m 1 S7 'J, when statis- 
tics of traffic were collected and preliminary discussions on the 
various possible systems were initiated. Kveu as early as this it 
was proposed to lessen the working expenses by using electric 
power. 

In 1876 the Swiss Engineer M. Jtiggenbaeh, the inventor of 
„tlic Eigi system of mountain railways, offered to construct the 
railway on the Bigi method and on the standard gauge, on the 
conditions (among others) that Government gave the land free, 
promised a guarantee of 4 per cent, for ten years on the estimated 
cost of £400,000 and granted exemption from taxes for the 
same period. Government, however, declined to agree to these 
terms and the offer fell through. 

In 1877 the Duke of Buckingham had estimates prepared for 
an alternative scheme providing tor a railway from Mettnpalaiyara 
to a, point two miles north of Kall&r, and an inclined ropeway 
thence to Lady Canning's Heat. This latter was to bo two miles 
long and in places as steep as 11 to 1 ; and the head of it was to 
be connected by rail with Ooouoor, about six miles away. This 
scheme was found to cost almost as natch as M. Biggenbaeh/s, 
and moreover none of the Government's advisers cared to 
recommend such a hazardous undertaking as the hauling of 
passengers up an incline of l~} to 1. Bo this project likewise foil 
through. 

In 1878 a memorial from landowners and residents on the hills 
suggested that money for the guarantee for M. BiggenbacVs 
scheme should be raised by doubling tlm tolls, increasing the land 
assessment on. the bills by 25 per cent. , granting a block of 20,000 
acres on thelCundaha to be exploited to the best advantage, and 
in certain other similar ways ; but none of these proposals found 
favour in the eyes of Government. 

In 1880 M. Biggenbaoh came out to the Nilgiris and with the 
assistance o£ Hajor Moraat, B.E., District Engineer (who took an 
enthusiastic interest mime scheme) worked out detailed estimates 



MEANS OP COMMUNICATION. 230 

for a rack railway wMcli came to only £132,000. A local CHAP. Til. 
company (the Nil girl Eigi Railway Co., Ltd.) was formed to lUir.wi.-ss. 
construct the line and Government gave it encouragement and 
certain concessions, agreeing - to allow it 10 acquire the necessary 
land under the Land Acquisition Act and to lay rails along the 
road from Mettupalaiyam to Kallar. The company, however, pre- 
sently came forward with a request for a Government guarantee 
of 4 per cent, on .£150,000 for 15 or 20 years ; and Government 
were naturally nut prepared to gran!,- this without demanding 
reciprocal conditions. What with the necessity of obtaining the 
consent of' the Government of India, fre.^h demands by the company, 
and the need of safeguarding- State interests, it was late in 1882 
"before the terras were finally settled and a Hunted guarantee 
promised. 

The English public, however, was nut satisfied with the nature 
of the guarantee or the sufficiency of the estimates, and capital 
for the proposed company was not forthcoming. The local 
company found it necessary to ask Government to modify ita terms, 
and to import an English engineer to scrutinize the estimates j and 
as they could not find the money necessary for this latter need 
Mr. Richard Woolley of Coonoor agreed to advance it on condition 
that he was given the contract for the construction of the line. 
His offer was accepted and thence began his connection with the 
railway, of which he -was eventually A genii and Manager. 

A new company, called the .NYlgiri Bailwoy Co., was formed in 
1885 with a capital of 25 lakhs and the proposal for a rack line 
was dropped for a. time in favour of an adhesion line, similar tc 
the Darjeeling Kailway, on a gradient of one in thirty. Eventu- 
ally the rack principle came again into favour ; in 1886 a contract 
was entered into between the Secretary of State and the new 
company ; in 1889 the necessary capital was raised in London ; 
and in August 1691 the first sod of the line was fit last cut by 
Lord Wenlock, then Governor of Madras. 

The company, however, was not able to complete the line and 
went into liquidation in April 1894. 

A new company was formed in February 189b' to purchase and 
finish the line; and between this and the Secretary of State a-n 
agreement was concluded by which all Government land required 
for the line was granted free and a guarantee of 3 per cent, on the 
capital during construction was accorded. The line was opened 
in June 1899 and was worked at first by the Madras Bailway 
. under an agreement. 



240 



the sritaniis. 



chap. vn. 

BYWAYS. 



Extension i<i 
Ontacanamiit. 



Projected 
railmya, 



The line was subsequently offered "by the company to Govern- 
ment ; and it was purchased by the latter for 35 lakhs in January 
1903, up to which time the capital outlay had been 49 lakhs. It 
is still worked by the Madras Bail way on certain terms, but the 
net earnings have never been enough to pay aa interest of more 
than two and a fraction p<" j r out. on the purchase money. The 
line has not succeeded in capturing' by any means the whole of 
the heavy traffic up tin 1 gbit, which i-, still thronged daily with 
builoek-cRrU. Slips still continue at certain points along- the 
route and the cnst of maintenance and repairs is thus heavy. 

The extension of the line to Ootacainuud is now in progress, 
It will be on th< j same (metro) gauge, and 11|- miles in length ; 
and the estimate is lis. 24,40,000. The steepest gradient will he 
I in 25 and there will he no rack. It was at one time proposed that 
the Ootae&wund terminus should ho at Charing Cross; but in 
1904 it was decided to place it at Mettncheri. This involved the 
realignment of the latter part ol the route and an ugly embank- 
ment across the Lake near the Willow Bund. Besides Ooonoor 
and Ootacamandj there will he stations at Wellington, the 
Cordite Factory, Ke'ti and Xiovedale. The greater part ol the 
earthwork has been carried out on contract by the 61st and 64th 
Pioneers, who established camps near the Half "Way House, at 
Lovedale and in Mettueheri itself. The regiments receive pay- 
ment for work done at the contract rates and from this are 
required to meet all extra expenditure incurred in connection 
with their employment, including the cost of transport, extra 
clothing, repair and maintenance of tools and wear and tear of 
tents. 

An estimate for Es, 31,29,000 for the electrification of the 
"whole line from Mettupalaiyam to Ootaoamund is before the 
Bailway Board ; but as this, if sanctioned, will take some time to 
cany into effect, steam working will be adopted on the extension 
to begin with. 

Several other railways in and about the district have been 
projected at different times. Xn 18S0, when the gold-boom had 
drawn such attention to the defective communications with the 
"Wynaad, it was proposed by the planters and gold companies 
that a line should be run from lieyporej which it was hoped to 
turn into a good harbour, to (rudalur and on to Mysore. A 
company for the purpose was initiated, but as Government 
declined to promise smy guarantee it was never really formed. 
An alternative proposal to continue the Mysore Eailway from 
Mysore was similarly suggested and eventually dropped, 



MEANS OF CQMMTTHIOATXON. Ml 

Schemes which will render the hills more accessible from CHAP. VII. 
other parts of South India are those to continue the Southern Railways. 
Mahratta Railway from Nanjang-dd to Mettnpalaiyam via the 
Gazalhafcii pass and Satyamang-alain, which would shorten the 
distance from Bangalore and Mysore; and io link Dindigul with 
Podanur via Pollachi, which would save travellers from Madura, 
Tinnevelly and Travaocore the present long detour through 
Trichiaopoly and Erode. The former line has been surveyed but 
deferred in favour of others with more pressing claims ; while 
the latter has been included in the three years 3 programme of 
construction which begins in 1908-1907. 



842 



THE KILOIEIS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

HAINFALL AND SEASONS. 



RUXF4LL — Influence ol' the aonth-wesl. monsoon -And of tho north-eaet monsoon 
—The lushest and !om j st falls— Tho ii^-ni-os for OuLacainnnd — Hail-storms. 
Bill Seaboks. Fl.oom tsn S'lollMS —In IS83— In 1881— h, 1R91— In 1902— 
Jn 1903. 

CHAP. V11I. The official statistics of the miafall at the various recording 
Rain* ail stations in the district are as under : — 



1-061- OiSt 


O T- L-5 

6 -^ h. 

■^ «3 -T* 




S™ 


00 


OS '-D OS t- 
<M M © O 

■i> ph a> i- 


S- 1 <M SB «S 

j| |66m 


6> 


% 




i-. 


cs 




as 


t- ^ 


N 


10 


•fOSI-0881 


os p op 




lh> 


O O 
7" 1" 


g 
S 


OT-^ -^fb 


3 


M»St- 
« O! -t 


as 


■a 


■foet-sisi 

'looaooj 
■f06l~U8l 


M M (N 


C3 


i~i to 

4f >p 


03 


OOH'OO 


3 


*1 M» 


6 





S8S 


CO 


<W 33 


G3 


i-t eo cues 

CO «i « IS 


«1 


os-« us 
n cj 
t~ ~j 


00 

S5 




'Wit 


rO05 O 

6 6 A< 


08 


S§ 


ca 


4-« ^i"b 




OJ ■* -J 


■f06T~0iBI 


6 H lH 


« 

** 


OO -^3=1 


cp 




en 


O (O 05 


i» 




OJMO 
<M "# O 
OO-H 


3 


-? ?1 


! 


as <& •* ^ 




£- 03 t- 

OD -^ H 


*P 


-n 


>T'08i:-S88I 
' ares T5A £)[)■«£ 


OOO 

666 




co lib 


1 


ocuoa 

■Jl* « M O 


g 


mcom 


3 




00 


MOW.* 
iX- '.O 35 O 
X ijl i) & 
T-1 « r-t 


=0 O iO 


01 





■fWl-MBl 

fOG[-f8«l 


O 5-1 00 

066 


aoffit- 
sb cc 4) cb 

— 1 ^! —1 


<b 


O 1ft OS 


N 


e 


oa >» m 

6 6 6 

K . 

4£b 


"tfi 


fr-O 




MMfflra 


© 1 *-j-*( 
«s j e-f aa 2? 


1 





1 


ll 


1 
H 


= ; J 


g « 

"S « 

OKfl 







RAINFALL AND SEASONS. 



243 



From these a number of facts are obvious at a glance : The CHAP. VT1T. 
greater part of the total annual rainfall (34*75 inches out of ofi'92 Bau-'fali* 
inches) is brought by the south-west monsoon, which blows from -fnHuence 
•Tune to September, and the heaviest falls occur in the stations of the 
which arc furthest west and thus are the first to receive this ^o nS oon. S 
monsoon. As it travels eastwards, the current rapidly deposits 
the moisture with which it is laden, and every succeeding station 
to the east gets less and less rain from it. Thus at DeVala, 
which is just at the top of the Western Grhats and receives the 
full force of the monsoon straight from the sea, the total annual 
fall is nearly "162 inches against the district average of 67 inches 
and the fall daring the south-west monsoon is 182£ inches 
against the district average for that period of 34§ inches. 
Giidalur is rnauli sheltered from the south-west by the spurs on 
the northern boundary of the Ouohtarlony Valley, and there the 
annual fall drops to 90 inches of which nearly 70 are received 
during the south-west monsoon. But at Naduvatfcam, which is 
above these spurs and on the very crest of the plateau and so just 
at the spot where the monsoon receives a sudden check in its 
progress, the total rainfall rises again to nearly 102 inches of 
which 79 come with the south-west current. As the monsoon 
travels eastwards across the plateau it gives less and less rain. 
The fall during its course at PaiMra (only four miles east of 
ISTaduvattam as the crow flies) drops to 61*70 inches ; at- Oota- 
camsnd (eight miles again east) to '2'^*45 inches ; and at Ooonoor, 
which is sheltered by the big spurs of the Dodabetta range, 
to only 15*61 inches. 

This Dodabetta range checks the current and causes it to And of t.he 
deposit the greater part of the moisture which it has left ; and all nortii ' eaBt 
the recording stations to the east of it (Ooonoor, Wellington, 
KJStagiri and. lvodanad) receive iess rain from it thau they do 
from the north-east monsoon which "blows in the directly opposite 
direction from October to December. .During this latter current, 
indeed, the above conditions are all reversed and the stations on 
the east of the district fare "better than those on the west for the 
same reason as before, namely that this monsoon reaches them 
first, "before it has deposited much of its moisture. At Ooonoor, 
which stands at the head of a ravine the mouth of which 
faces east mid so collects the damp winds like a funnel; the fall - 
"between October and December is as high as 30*56 inches j 
Wellington,, which lies further within the plateau andis somewhat 
sheltered by the hills to the east of it, receives only 21' 38 
inches ; Kotagiri and Kodanad, which are on. the eastern creat 
of the plateau, get'27'86 and 24'2 7 "respectively ; aud Kilknndah, 



244 



THE NSL&IBtS. 



CHAP. VHI. where the rain driving' up the Bhavani valley is checked, receives 

Baihpali. 22-35 inches. But at Ootacamund, which lies right under the 

protecting mass of Dodabetta, the fall during this monsoon is 

only 14" 63 inches ; at Naduvattam, farther west, only 1"2"69 ; and 

at Gudalnr, down under the lee of the plateau, only 10-52 inches. 

Between .Tanuarr and March, the driest season of the year, 
Ooonoor, the other stations on the oast oil the district, and 
Kilkundah all receive some benefit from the last showers of this 
north-east monsoon ; but nowhere else is the fall in these three 
months as much as two inches. In April and .May showers 
appear impartially all over the country and every station gets 
from 1\ to 10f inohes. 

This unequal distribution of the rainfall, as is pointed out 
elsewhere in this book, is of the greatest importance from an 
agricultural point of view — plants and trees which will do well 
on the moister west side refusing to flourish on the drier eastern 
slopes— and also provides the resident in the district with a wide 
choice of climates. Its greatest extremes do not appear in the 
official statistics, for there are no recording-stations in either 
the wettest or the driest parts of the district. Probably the 
annual rainfall on parts of the Kundahs is as much as 200 inches, 
and that on the south-eastern slopes above the Ooimbafcore 
district as little as 40 inches. 

The average annual fall in the district as a whole is laised by 
the heavy rain in its western stations and is thus larger than in 
any other Oollectorate except the two on the "West Coast proper 
— Malabar and South Canara. 

The highest recorded average for the whole district was the 
94 inches of 1902 and the lowest the 38 inches of 1876, the year 
of the Great Famine ; but the total supply was over 80 inches in 
1883, 1893, 1896 and the four years 1900—1903, and was under 
55 inches in 1870, 1874-76, 1878-79,1881 and 1899. 

In Ootacamnnd itself the total fall is only 48*35 inches, which 
is less than that of Madras (49'0\J) and very little more than 
the figures for the littoral districts (Ohingleput, 45*33 ; South 
Arcot, 43*57; and Tanjore 44*7. f >) which lie next south of the 
Presidency town. Yet Ootacamnnd is popularly classed as a rainy 
spot. The chief reason for this is the fact that nearly two-fifths 
of its total fall is received during the three months (May — July) 
during which it is full of visitors and that this arrives in lighter 
showers than anywhere else in the district and is spread, on an 
average, over 38 of the 92 days in those three months. A visitor 
who finds that more or less rein has fallen on 40 per cent, of the 



The highest 
and lowest 



The figures 
for Ootaoa- 
mwid. 



S.AWFALL AND SEASONS. 



245 



days be spent in the station not unnaturally classes tbo place as a OH A I*. Yin, 
damp locality. The highest recorded fall in the tuwn was the it aim*' all. 
7d - 85 inches of 1903, when 25 inches fell in July alone ; and the 
lowest the 25'ltj inches of 1876. Other years of heavy falls were 
188"S (74-37 inches), 1902 (66'05) and 1901 (.e0*l8>; and of 
droughts. 1888 (38-70), 3878 (39-OJ) and 1879 (89*47). 

No snow ever falls on the Nilgiris (there is a yagae unverified Kail -storms, 
tradition thaii some fell on the Kundahs on one occasion) but 
fierce li ail-storms are by no means uncommon The hail-stones 
are generally much flattened and are often as large as a rupee. 
Old residents have known them, drift into hollows to the depth 
of a foot and remain on the ground, in shady spots, for two 
whole days. They have sometimes (as in. April 1891) done 
immense damage to the coffee blossom. One of the worst hail- 
storms on record was that which devastated the Government 
Oinchona plantation called Hooker in 1879. A report of the 
time said that much of it had been ' practically destroyed. A 
few scattered trees survive, which serve to show, by the injury to 
their bark and the broken branches, the severity of the blows 
they received.' 

Actual famine has never been known on the Nilgiris proper Kau Seasons. 
Or in the Wynaad ; but the tract round Masinigudi appears to 
have suffered somewhat severely in the Great famine of 1876 — 78. 
Elsewhere in the district high prices caused by scarcity in other 
parte of the Presidency have several times pressed hardly upon 
the poorer classes, especially since so much of the food-supply oi 
the district is imported ; but regular relief-works have never 
been necessary. In 1885 the collection of. half the land revenue 
was postponed owing to adverse season ; in 1899-1900 payment 
of one-third of the kists was similarly allowed to be deferred, 
while to provide employment for the very poor the District Board 
started special work on some of the roads near the villages worst 
affected ; and in 190b" the realization of certain outstanding 
arrears in a few villages on the northern slopes was postponed 
and the Board again gave assistance by opening local fund works 
near the villages which were most distressed. 

The rivers of the' plateau all flow in deep channels cut by 
themselves in past ages, and floods on the great scale so common 
in the low country, accompanied by widespread loss of life and 
property, are altogether unknown. The chief damage occasioned 
by unusual rain is to bridges over the streams and to the roads. 

One of the worst storms on record occurred round Qofcaca- in 3865. 
mund and Ooonoor on 23rd October 1865. The right approach 
oi the masonry bridge which crosses the Ooonoor stream at the 



FLOODS AKT) 



24Q 



THE NILfl-tfilS, 



OHAP, Till. 

Floods ash 

Stokms 



edge of the ghit near the present Ooonoor railway-station was 
covered with a torrent four or five feet deep and at Ootaeamund 
the Lake rose to the top of the "Willow Bund and threatened at 
one time to breach it. 

A storm in November 1881 did great damage to the new 
Kdtagiri-Metttrpalaiyani ghit ruacl and occasioned many land- 
slips on the Ooonoor gh&i. 

Between the 11th and 14th October 1801, 29 inches of ram 
foil in Kotagiri and did such damage to the TCotagiri ghii road 
that it was "blocked to all traffic for some days and to wheeled 
traffic for nearly three weeks. The same storm also swept away 
the Barliyar and KalSar bridges on the Coonoor gha"t and 
consequently the plateau was cat off for days from all communi- 
cation with the plains, to the grievous inconvenience of its 
inhabitants. Wheeled traffic was not restored on the Coonoor 
ghat until December. The rainfall at Ooonoor in October that 
year was no less than 51 inches, or five-sixthy of the whole supply 
received in an average yeaa-. 

In December 1902 much the same combination of misfortunes 
occurred again. Twenty-one inches of rain (three times the 
average amount) fell in that month in Ooonoor, and at Kotagiri 
24 inches (sis: times the average amount) was received, of which 
t- 45 inches fell in a single night. The Coonoor railway was 
blocked for a month; the old and new Ooonoor ghat roads for 
nearly as long ; and all the traffic of the eastern side of the 
plateau was thrown tipon the Kotagiri ghat, which was itself in a 
parlous condition— -slips having occurred throughout it and being 
serious in sis of its twenty-one miles. 

On the night of the 4th October 1905, 6*8 inches of rain fell 
at Ooonoor in three hours and the Coonoor river and its affluents 
eame down iu heavy and sadden flood, the former sweeping right 
over the parapet of the bridge near the railway-station. The 
families of the station stall had to he rescued by breaking open 
the back windows of their quarters with crowbars ; 3,000 sleepers 
for the extension of the line to Ootacamund were swept away; 
four or five children were drowned in Coonoor ; and much c 
was done to many of the roads elsewhere. 



PUBLIC HKALTH, 24? 



CHAPTER IX. 

PUBLIC HEALTH. 



Climate — On the plateau — Tho observatory on Doclabefcfca — Effeota of the 
climate — Climate of tho Wynaad. Diskas^s— Cholera — Small-pox — Plague, 
Medio,* t Irm'mmoNK— Gtfdalur hospital-— Coonoor hospital — St. Bartho- 
lomew's Hospital, Ootaeamunci. 

Of the many surprises and delights which greeted the first CHAP. IX, 
Europeans who reached the Nilgiris, the most wonderful and Cltmajes, 
engrossing was its temperate and equable climate ; and descrip- Qn thT" 
lions of this occupied a most prominent position in their accounts plateau, 
of tho plateau. Later o», the obstinate incredulity regarding 
the coolness and salubrity of these hills which prevailed in " 
othci* parts of India led to evidence of both matters being 
reiterated with earnest emphasis by those who had personally 
esperienced them. And finally, when Government began to 
consider the desirability of establishing an official sanitarium 
at Ootacamund, the nature of the climate there became of such 
paramount importance that report after report was called for 
from the medical authorities and ream upon ream was written 
in reply. 

The early literature upon the subject is thus most extensive. 
The views which were formed in those dsiys are sufficiently 
epitomized in Baikie's Neilgherriess, Surgeon De Burgh Birch's 
paper published in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science 
in 18H8, and a report compiled from the records of the Medical 
Board's office which was published by Government in 1844 ; 
and nowadays the general characteristics of the climate of the 
Nilgiri plateau, its charm and its virtues, are so well known that 
the point ueed not be laboured. 

The most eloquent testimony regarding the temperature 
there is provided by the following statistics (which are expressed 
in degrees Fahrenheit) of the height of the thermometer 
throughout the year in Ootacamund and Wellington ; — 



248 



THE HIL&IHtS. 



OHA.P. IX. 

Clisate, 





OoLaoamnni 
Average Average 




tyellingtor 




Monti,. 


Average 


Average 






maxi- 


mini- 


ML-an. 


uiaid- 


mini- 


Mean. 




mum. 


mum. 




mum. 


mum 




January 


64-5 


-!3-o 


53-2 


! 
i 

C7-6 45-2 


50-4 


February 


06-9 


14-9 


55-3 


70-8 


47i. 


58-9 


, March 


6!)'7 


48-15 


58-7 


74-1 


52'2 


63-2 


April ... 


71-3 


52-0 


61-4 


75-9 


55-9 


65 9 


Slay ... 


70'0 


53-1 


ei-o 


76-1 


5S-0 


67-1 


Jane ... 


63-9 


53-4 


57'2 


72-2 


68-0 


65' 1 


1 July 


61 5 


62-2 


56'2 


71-1 


57-9 


64.-5 


1 August , . . 


63-4 


52'0 


56'9 


71-4 


57'1 


64-S 


j September 


68-8 


51-4 


56-8 


71-3 


65-8 


63-6 


t October 


64-1 


50-0 


56'6 


69-1 


54-8 


62-0 


November . . 


63-6 


47-9 


54 7 


67-3 


32-0 


59-7 


! Becember 


04-0 


46'2 


63'5 


66-2 


48'1 


57'2 


j The year ... 


85-6 


49-5 


56-9 


71-1 


S3-6 


62-3 



* For the five years— July 1901 to Jime 1906. 

These sliow that the mean annual temperature at these places 
ie respectively 56 0, 9 and 62 0, 3 Fahrenheit, against the 83° oi* 
Madras. They alao exhibit in a marked manner the unusual 
equability of the climate : at Ootacamundj for example, the 
average minimum temperature of the warmest month of all the 
twelve (April) is less than, nine degrees higher than that of the 
coolest (January) ; the average maximum of the former is less 
than seven degrees above that of the latter ; and the average 
range of the thermometer during the year between the average 
maximum, and the average minimum, for each month is only 
l§ - 2 degrees, the maximum difference between these two -figures 
being 22 degrees in February and the minimum only 9"B degrees 
in July. These statistics surely point to the Nilgiris possessing 
one of the most temperate and equable climates on the face of the 
globe. The rainfall there has heeu referred to in the last 
chapter, where it was soon that though, owing to the influence of 
the hills on the monsoon currents, it varies greatly at the several 
periods of the year in "different localities, the annual average 
fall at Ootacamund is only 48*35 inches, or not quite so much as 
that at Madras. 

Br, Baikie justly summarisied the climate of the Nilgiri year 
when he said that l the oold weather or winter is like the spring 
of the north of Persia or the autumn of the south of France, and 
the monsoon, is veyy nearly a mild autumn in the south of 
England. These two divisions include our whole year.* To be 



PUBLIC HEALTH. 249 

somewhat more precise, it may be explained that the usual coarse 0Ha.p„ IX. 
of the seasons is as under: The first throe months of the year Olimase. 
are almost rainless and are a procession of bright, clear days 
during which a dry wind blows from the north- east through 
Janttery and February and veers rouud to the south-east in 
March This is perhaps the least pleasant and healthy of the 
seasons ; the hoar-frosts which are common at night between 
December and February have turned the grass on the Downs 
an unlovely brown, and the absence of rain and the dry wind 
check vegetation. In April and May good showers appear and 
the grass, the flowers and the trees start into life again ; but the 
tempera tare rises to its highest point and the climate is less 
bracing than at its best. From June to the middle of August 
the south-west monsoon is blowing—bleak and bitter on the 
extreme west of the pluteau, but tempered by the Lime it reaches 
Ootacammid to storms of heavy rain alternating with days of 
soft Scotch mist -'diiob are ihu healthiest and most invigorating 
■period of the year and during which every description of vegeta- 
tion grows at tropical speed, By the end of August the monsoon 
has slackened or disappeared ; and September is perhaps the 
j>leasantest month of the twelve, the days being fine but cool 
and all Nature green and nourishing. In October follows the 
shorter north-east monsoon until the end of Novesnber, when the 
bright, clear days and frosty nights reappear. A table showing 

the mean temperaturej 



I Aver- ' Daily ; 



average rainfall 



3 fl m +; ! a S° Direa- velo- ; average direction and 

-2 Z 8 '3 ' ram- Hon of. i city i -i i ■ e j.i 

o I || fell in wtad. ! m : dall y velocity of the 

* e v 2 (iaohes. i imlea. ' wind at Gotacarnund 



a 



in each month during 
the Are years from 

ta-ar., ...I 53-2 ■ 0-3S NS8E 80 I j q1 1901 to J a „ e 
Petoaai-y . I 56-3 0-48 I86B1 01 ,„."". . . , , 

Mueb . I 58-7 1-00 s 70 15 : 87 : 1908 is given in the 

A I* a ■■ ! S'i i'H I S S ! M I i margin, and this sum- 
May . . I 81-0 , G-22 & "A E 86 ? J ,.,.,, 

Juiib ... ! 57-2 ti-17 S70W 127 5 maraes, statistically, 



53-2 


0-88 


N 88 E 


80 ! 


56-3 


0-48 


K 88 E 


01 ! 


58-7 


1-00 


S.70E 


87 1 


61-4 


3-24 


N SiE 


103 | 


61-0 


8-22 


K U IS 


86 | 


57-2 


ti-17 


S 7!) W 


127 ! 


56-2 


0-67 


S S3 W 


162 } 


56-fl 


4-71 


NS6W 


12S J 


58-8 


4-90 


s ai w 


107 J 


56-6 


8-17 


N47E 


82 ' 


5*7 


4-4!) 


N76B 


71 


53-5 


1-97 


IF72E 


94 j 



Bveu in April and 



Only ... 56-2 , 0-67 S S3 W 162 1 the Kmate of that 

August ..I 56-0 4-71 N 86 W 1 128 , 

September, j 58-8 , 4-90 S Gl W 107 i town. 

October ,. ] 

November. 

Bseember. ; 53-5 | 1-97 S 72 B 94 | jj£ a jr ; the warmest 

months, the 

never too hot lor comfort. ; aad in the oddest season all sign of 
the hoar-frosts disappears (except in deep shade) by nine in the 
morning. Tho srra however, mild as it is, tans far more rapidly 
(probably owing to the dryness of the skin) than the fiercer heat 



250 



THE NILOiaiS. 



OHAP. IX. of tlie plains. Sir Thomas Munro, who bad a long and intimate 
Climate. acquaintance with hot. weathers, declared that lie was more san- 
"" burnt after a three hours' walfe at Ootacamund than he. had ever 

been before in India; and Captain Ward, in his survey report of 
1822, says in his quaint diction that the keen air and sun have i a 
tendency to make the face and liprf very sore .; the pain arising 
from it does in some individuals create fever ' — though the latter 
part of this assertion is seldom borne ont by present-day 
experience. 

The sharp, frosty mornings of the cold weather are to many 
the most enjoyable moments of the whole year; and, though 
they nip the more delicate of the garden plants, they provide a 
€ wintering" ' much needed by certain shrabs and fruit-trees and 
hy no me;ins stop the blossoming of the hardier flowers, which 
(a, rare thing in any quarter of the globe) goes on without 
intermission! throughout the whole year. 

Unkind things are often said about the rain and mists of the 
south-west monsoon ; but it is generally admitted that they 
usher in the most invigorating* period of all the year. The wind 
at that season conies straight in from the sea, only sixty miles 
away as the crow flies, and analyses have shown that the rain it 
brings is almost absolutely free of all taint, whereas that which 
comes across the plains with the north-east monsoon is charged 
with organic impurity. 

Ootaca.in.und has thus points of climatic superiority over any 
hill-station in India. The following figures sufficiently illustrate 
the relative lightness of its rainfall and mildness and equability 
of its temperature compared with those of a few representative 
sanitaria in other provinces. The advantage it possesses in 
being sitnated, not on a steep and cramped hill-side, but oil a 
broad plateau where cross-country riding, driving, hunting and 
golf are possible, also make for the health of its European 
inhabitants. 



" 






Teiaperatm-e in degrees 


3i»MuB. 


Elevation 
in feet. 


Annual 

1-ainf.iH in 

inches 




Fahrenheit 




Average 


Highest 


Lowest 








tmnnal 


mean of 


mean of 








mean . 


any month 


anymonth. 


OofelcamimQ" 


7,228 


4&8i 


58-9 


81-4 


5S-2 


Simla 


7,224 


t>8-5!> 


55-1 


67-7 


33-5 


Bar-joeling 


7,378 


124-88 


53-0 


01-9 


10-S 


Mm-ree 


6333 


35-85 


58-?. 


73-1 


a-2 


Mount Abu ,.. 


3,948 


01-73 


09-1 


79-7 


58-9 


Paohmarhi 


3,528 


76-31 


70-4 


85-1 


58-0 



PUBLIC HEALTH. 351 

Meteorological observations were first scientifically conducted CHAP. IX. 
at Gotacainuud as far back as January 1847 in a building Climate. 
situated on. the top of Dodabetta which, in accordance with the iy he 
wish* of tie Directors, bad been erected for the purpose under observatory 
the superintendence of Mr. T. G. Taylor, F.R.S., who bad bean 0J1 Doi3abe£tB ' 
tbe Company's Astronomer since 1830- Tbe observations 
(whicb from September 1849 were made bourly) were continued 
until May 1859, when on tbe advice of tbe then. Grovernment 
Astronomer, who considered thai sufficient scientific material 
bad been collected, the instruments (barometer, thermometers, 
rain-gauge and anemometer J were removed to Coonoor and 
observations begun there hj the Assistant Surgeon. 1 

In accordance with orders passed by Government in August 
I860', an observatory was next opened at Wellington under the 
care of tbe Cantonment Surgeon, observations beginning in 1870. 
This remained for many years tbe only institution of the kind 
on the hills. 

The climate of Wellington, however, differs considerably 
from that of Ootacauiund, and in 1896 Government adopted the 
view of the Meteorological Beporter to tbe Government of India 
that observatories both at the latter place and on the top of Doda- 
betta would disclose results of much value, more especially with 
reference to the south-west monsoon ; but financial stringency 
prevented further action until 1900-1901. In that year estimates 
for the observatory on Dodabetta (Es. 5,950) and for an open 
shed for tbe instruments at Ootacamund were sanctioned; 
and observations began at the latter place in -Tune 1901 and 
at the former in Tune 1902. The instruments on Dodabetta are 
self-recording, and tbe observing clerk goes up daily to note 
results and change tbe registering sheets. In 1906 it was held 
to be unnecessary to maintain, in addition to these two, an 
observatory at Wellington, and ibis last was closed. 

Healthy as is the climate of the Nilgiri plateau, not evexy Effects o? 
form of illness is benefited by a change thither. Affections of the climate. 
the heart and lungs ara px*ejudicially infiueiieed by tbe altitude, 
which throws double work upon these organs and thus sometimes 
induces headaches and sleeplessness among new arrivals. Dysen- 
tery, especially when complicated with affections of the liver, is 
often actually aggravated hy a change to the bills; and, since 

1 Fiii-thar details will be found in Sir IT. Price's book. The observations 
made at. Dodabetta between 1847 and 1855 were published oy tbo GrOTerameiifc 
Astronomer and a diwessioa of the raaulGs appears in a paper by Col. SyTces, 
F.S.S., in tha Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Fart II, 1850. The 
acouxaoy of the observations was apparently not of » high order, 



m 



TFfE NII.QIK1S. 



OHAP. IX 
Climate, 



Olimate of 
the Wynaad, 



the action of the sfeirt is almost totally checked by the coolness 
of the air, affections of the liver and kidneys are not benefited. 
For some reason, again, diseases of the eye usually do "better in 
the warm , moist air of the coasi: stations than on the Nilgiris, 
restful as the perennial green of the latter might be supposed to 
pro Ye. 

Visitors often derive less benefit tliau they might from a 
short visit tn Ootaminuntf by the rashness of their first proceed- 
ings there. It is difficult for them to realize as they swelter 
under the punkahs at MettupEilaiyam that in three hours the 
train and tonga will convey them to a clime where the warmest 
clothing is a necessity ; and want of proper preparations to meet 
the contrast (the best plan is to change into warm clothes at 
Ooonoor) result-* in chills on the liver. Or, despising the sun, 
which feels little stronger than that of England, they are less 
careful about wearing* a topi than on the plains^ and pay the 
penalty for confusing the results of elevation with those of 
latitude. Or, again, tempted by the exhilaration of the hill air, 
they take unwontedly active exercise, develope an unusual 
appetite, appease it with an undue supply of the excellent fare 
winch the hills produce, and — reap the consequences. For the 
first ten days, until they get acclimatized to the sudden change, 
both humans and horses require the warmest clothing, light 
exercise and light fare ; and those of both species who are less 
than robust do well to break the journey at the lower stations 
of Goonoor, Wellington or Koiagiri, so that the change of 
altitude and temperature may be less sudden. 

The Nilgiris, indeed, possesses a great advantage in having 
three stations which represent three stages of climate — Goonoor, 
the lowest, with its warmer and moister air ; Kotagiri, somewhat 
higher, cooler and. drier ; and Ootacamund itself, the highest, 
coldest and least damp of the three. JJeiicate persons who cannot 
stand the high elevation, and low temperature of Ootacanimid not 
infrequently find that the two lower and wanner stations suit 
them admirably ; and by changes from one to another of these 
three places the rain of the two monsoons can be largely avoided, 
since Ootacamund is partly protected from the noi'th-east, and 
the other two from the south-west, current. 

The climate of the Wynaad is totally different from s and 
altogether inferior to, that of the pUteau. It has already been 
seen that the rainfall at Devala is between three and four times 
as heavy as that of Ootacamund; though temperature is 
nowhere officially recorded in the Wynaad, the heat may be 



KTBIiIC HEA&TH. 358 

declared to "be severe in summer ; and the whole of the country CHAP. IS. 
is a prey to malaria of a bad type. This disease is worst in the Climate. 
hot months ; and is partly aggravated by the sudden changes in 
temperature which occur then towards evening. It is a 
common thing, at the end of a sweltering day, to see heavy 
"black clouds appear on the crest of the plateau above, and sud- 
denly to fuel a chill, moist, wind Mow down from the heights 
which lowers the temperature as much as ten or twelve degrees 
in a few minutes. Among the thinly-clad coolies from the plains 
this naturally induces chills and internal congestions. 

The tendency to malaria diminishes after the south-west 
monsoon has broken, and the cooler months of the year are free 
from the disease except in certain particularly pestilential spots, 
such as Tippakiidu. 

Except this Wynaart malaria, no disease can he said to he Diseases. 
particularly prevalent in any part of the district. 

"When Europeans were first settling on the plateau it was Ohotera. 
proclaimed as one of the great advantages of the new Paradise that 
cholera — which in those days was far more of a scourge than now 
and in 1827 had lolled the Governor, Sir Thomas Munro, himself — 
was unknown there. The disease was speedily imported from the 
plains, however, and not a quinquennium now passes without a 
certain number of deaths from it. But it is leas destructive than 
on the plains. In 187?, the year of the Great Famine, as many as 
476 persons, it is true, died of cholera ; but in no other year since 
then have the casualties reached 80, while in many years they have 
been nil. 

Small-pox has always been known on the plateau and in Small-pox, 
spite of vaccination (which is compulsory in Ootacamund and 
Ooonoor and is activel) performed outside them) its victims 
number far more than those of cholera The heaviest mortality 
on record (327 deaths) again occurred in the disastrous year 1877. 

Plague did not reach the district until 1903, in February of piagua. 
which year it was imported from Mysore to Gndaliar and caused 
twenty deaths by the end of March. It advanced thence to 
Ootacamund and Naduvuttara ; and Kotagiri, Kateri and other 
places were also infected from Mettupalaiyam.. The disease then 
spread rapidly among the planters' coolies, estate after estate 
reporting cases. With the close of the working season on the 
plantations at the end of March, when many of the ooolies returned 
to their villages on the plain?, the number of seizures declined; 
jtat the outbreak resulted in L91 deaths in all 



254 



THE NlLGIBtt. 



CHAP. IX, 
Diseases, 



Medio ^t. 






Cocraoor 
hospital. 



In 1904, and again in 1905-1908, the disease reappeared ; "but 
the deaths from it nnrabered only 29 and 49 respectively. The 
expenditure on preventive measures was heavy, special staffs 
being engaged and substantial camps "being" erected, and --the 
threatened attacks at least conferred the "benefit that they 
awakened interest in sanitary improvement in the towns and larger 
villages. 

The civil medical institutions in the district (excluding the 
hospital at the Lawrence Asylum, which is intended only for 
the inmates of that institution, and the new Pasteur Institute at 
Ooonoor referred to in the account of that place below) comprise 
four hospitals at Kotagiri, GrudaKir, Coonoor and Qotacanmnd 
and a dispensary at JPaikara. At Wellington is a large military 
hospital. A hospital was Wilt at Devala by the planting com- 
munity in 1876 ; was transferred to the care of the District Board 
in 1887, after planting and mining in the Wynaad had fallen on 
evil days ; and was abolished in April 1893. 

The Paikara dispensary, which is kept up from local funds; 
was opened only in 1908. At Hotagiri a dispensary was started 
by Gtovernment so far back as 183 J. It was transferred to 
the charge of ihe District Board in 1 885 and the old building' 
was then demolished and the existing one erected at a cost of 
Bs . 6,000. The apothecary's quarters and dead-house were 
added subsequently. 

The other three institutions contain separate accommodation 
for Europeans. The Gudalur hospital was originally a quasi- 
private institution, the planters supporting it by subscriptions 
and G-overament supplying the apothecary. The existing building 
was put up in 18u6 at a cost of lis. 5,800, of which G-overnmont 
gave Ks„ 8,400 and the rest was met from private subscriptions. In 
1872 the "District Board took over the, institution. In 1900-1901 a 
European ward was added at a co*t of Eh. 1,500 and a separate 
hospital for the police was opened on the first day of 1904. 

The Coonoor hospital was opened in 1855 and was originally 
a Government affair. When the municipal council came into 
being, it contributed to the upkeep of the institution, but the 
lattex's finances, in spite of !ocal contributions, were not equal to 
one growing demands npon them, and in 1888 Government 
consented to make it an annual grant. In 1880 the management 
was transferred to the municipal council, Government undertaking 
to contribute Ks. 1,300 per aninxm. In 1800 the institution consist- 
ed of. two main blocks, one for .Europeans and the othee for natives, 
and possessed a maternity and a caste ward, besides an isolation 



PUBLIC HEALTH. 255 

slied. A new out-patients' room, and a new maternity ward were qhap XX.. 
added in !899 raid 1900 and an infectious diseases ward two Medical 
years later. In-stitdtionb. 

In 1899 a uomniittee of bluropean ladies was organized to 
supervise the general working of the hospital and see to the 
comfort of the patients, and they Lave since done a great deal 
for both, raising considerable sums and spending them in most 
judicious ways — among others by furnishing the new maternity 
"ward and building a new operation theatre. 

St. Bartholomew's Hospital at Ootacamund is the largest St, Bav- 
institution of the kind in the district. Its history, and that of ho^ST' 8 
its predecessors, are given in detail in Sir Frederick Price's book. Oofcaeamun& 
It was completed in 18G7 at a cost of Us. 21,556, of which 
Bs. 12,000 were granted by Government (who held that medical 
needs in Ootacamund should be chiefly provided, as elsewhere, 
from local and municipal funds) aud most of the balance was 
raised by private contributions. Grovernment gave the institu- 
tion the services of a hospital assistant, the municipal council 
granted it Ks. 500 per annum, and the remainder of the funds 
necessary to its upkeep was raised by private contributions and 
the proceeds of periodical charitable entertainments got up for 
the purpose. It was managed (as it still is) by a committee of 
which the Civil Surgeon of Ootacamund was executive officer and 
secretary. 

In 1875 Government agreed to contribute annually one half of 
the sum which the committee might raise by voluntary contribu- 
tions and suggested that the municipality should increase its grant 
to Us. 750 per annum. At this time the hospital consisted of 
male and female Buropean wards with four and two beds, respect- 
ively, a ward for ten native males, another for six native females, 
an apology for a maternity ward and tvso special wards which 
were little used. Sundry out-buildings and a proper water-supply 
were added in 18 7b > partly at the cost of Government. In May 
of that year the sub-committee of ladies which still does such 
valuable work was first formed, their duties being similar to those 
of the corresponding body at Uoonoor. In 1876 new wards for 
Europeans and Eurasians who were willing to pay for accommo- 
dation were put up from the proceeds of certain fancy bazaars and 
entertainments, and a casual (now the septic) ward was erected ; 
in 1877 and 1881 other wards were built ; in 1884-85 the mater- 
nity ward given by Eao Bahadur Tiruvenkatasvami Mudaliy&r, a 
wealthy abkari contractor, was finished; and m J.389j 1891 and 1895 
further additions to the accommodation were made. In 1888 an, 



m 



TSE NILS-IBIS. 



OHAP, IX, 

MEDICAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 



apothecary was substituted for the hospital assistant; and iu 1898 
an Assistant Surgeon for the apothecary. Tlie District Board 
began contributing to the institution in 1890 and since 1 -^94 has 
paid it Rs. 750 yearly. The existing maternity ward was presaut- 
ed.iu 1900 by Khan Bahadur A. E. Haji fc'afcir Muhammad Sait 
of Ootaoamuadj Government assisting ; and in 1903 was completed 
the MacOartie ward, erected from subscriptions (aided by a Govern- 
ment donation) to the memory- of Mr. (J. F, MacCartie, g.i.e., who 
had been Collector of the district from 1889 to 1891 and after- 
ward* Private Secretary to the Governor,, and was killed in action 
in the Boer War in 1900, after he had retired. 

Numerous other additions aud gifts (of which tin- JB\ Price 
gives details) have since been made "by native Princes and nota- 
bilities ; the funds of the institution are annually replenished 
from the proceeds of elaborate entertainments and fancy fairs 
organised by the committee ; and the hospital is now one of the 
best equipped in Madras outside the Presidency town and can 
boast, a career of constantly increasing usefulness. 



257 



OHAPTER X. 

EDUCATION. 



CHAP. X. 

Ctcnsuh 
Statistics. 



Education 
by religions 
and taluks. 



Census Statistics— Education by religions hik! taluks. Kijuuationai. Institu- 
tions — Lower secondary schools for boys — Broeka' Memorial School—Lower 
faeeomlctry schools for girls — The Ilobai't School — Upper secondary schools 
for boys — St.. Joseph's School, Coonoov — The Sfc&nea School — The Lawrence 
Asylum — Upper secondary schools for girls —Schools for indigenous castes. 
Newspapers. 

According to the statistics of the census of 1901, the people of 
the Nilgiris are "better educated than those of any other district 
in the Presidency except Madras town, as many as seventeen 
per cent, of the males, and five per cent, of the females, within, it 
toeing able to read and write, against an average in the Province 
as a whole of twelve and one per cent, respectively. 

This result is due partly to the fact that Christians, who are 
nearly always better educated than either Muaalmana or Hindus, 
are especially numerous in the district ; and partly to the 
Musaluians of the Nilgiris being a particularly go-ahead class. 
The marginal table, which shows 
the number per cent, of each 
aex of the followers of each of 
the three religions who could 
read and write in 1901, illus- 
trates this clearly. Cocmoor and 
Ootacamund taints take about 
equal rank in the matter ; but 
(■ludal'ur is far behind either 
and brings down very greatly 
the relative position of the dis- 
trict as a whole. Instruction, is usually in Tamil, which is the 
language of the public courts and offices, and next In frequency 
in English. 

Of the educational institutions u-bove the primary grade 
existing m the district at present. Lower secondary schools for 
boys number twelve, pj Of these, five are maintained for Musalmans 
and the other seven are ' public ' schools in which English is the schools for 
33 , h0 J s ' 







ffl 


Religion. 


3 




Christiana .. 


SI 


29 


MuaalmanH ... 


so 


i 


Hindus 


10 


1 


Diam'ct Total ... 


17 


5 



EnrcATiotfAi. 
Institutions. 



258 THK 2UM3IEIS. 

CHAP. X. medium of tiution s and include the St. Joseph's and St. Agnes' 

Educational schools at Ootacamund, and St. Antony's at Coonoorj maintained 

IittraroiioKa. -^ ^ & oman Catholic Mission, the Church Missionary Society's 

school in Mettucheri, the Basel Mission's schools at Keti and 

Kotagiri and tiie Breeks' Memorial School. 

St. Joseph's school for native boys was started hall a century 
ag'O and in 1870 was moved into a building in Mettucheri which 
had "been tho mission's chapel before the present Church of St, 
Mary was erected. It was managed by the parish priest until 
the beginning of 1900, when three European Brothers of St. 
Gabriel took over tho charge of it. There are now some 200 
boys in it. 

The St. Agnes 1 school in intended for the children of poor 
Eurasian parents. It is situated in the compound of the Con- 
vent, is managed by the Mother Superior and has an attendance 
of about 80. 

The Basel Mission school at Kotagiri is chiefly attended by 
Native Christians but includes also some caste Hindu and 
! Panchama ' pupils. Its strength is about 00. 
BieeW The Breeks' Memorial School has had a more chequered 

Soliool 1 * history than any of the above. It was founded ia memory of 

Mr. J, W. Breeks , C.S., the iirst Commissioner of the Nilgiris. 
who died at Ootacamund in 1372. The year previous to this the 
boarding school for European boys which had been kept since 
1858 (until 1859 at Stonehouse, then at Lushingfcon Hall and 
Upper Norwood, and from 1862 at Snowdon) by the Eev. Dr. 
G. U. Pope, the well-known Tamil scholar, had been closed 
owing to Doctor Pope having been appointed Warden of Bishop 
Goiton's school at Bangalore. l In those days communication 
with England was far more difficult than now ; Dr. Pope's school 
had been patronized by many of the Europeans at Ootacamund ; 
and its closure was held to be a great public loss. The committee 
appjinted to decide upon the form which the memorial to Mr. 
Breeks should take thus determined to start a day school for the 
poorer Europeans and Eurasians, to which, as several natives 
had contributed to the memorial fund, natives of the better 
classes should also be admitted. 

The subscriptions raised amounted to some Rs. 4,000, and 
Government and the municipal council gave grants. The 

1 'Farther particulars will bo found in Sir Frederick Price's book, wliirli 
■jIso gives information regarding other school 5 esfcablisliecl at- Oofcfieaimmd i& 
. former times for European, and Eurasian children. 



253 



foundation stone of the "building for the school, -which is now the 
clerks' room of: the Civil Court, was laid on 16th May 1873 by 
the Hon. Mr. J. D. Sim, o.s.r., Member of Council; and the 
work was completed at a cost of lis. 9,487, and the school 
ojfenedj in June 1874. Government promised a grant of Rs. 150 
a month for three years, an English headmaster was appointed, 
and the school was vested in four trustees — the Commissioner, 
the Chaplain, the Senior Civil Surgeon and the Vice-President of 
the municipality-. 

In the first year of its existence the progress of the institution 
was so satisfactory that it was decided to enlarge the building. 
Another Us. 4,000 were collected by public subscription, Govern- 
ment and the municipality gave farther grants, and Us, 6,000 
were raised by debentures. With this money a good building, 
with a tall tower carrying a clock (purchased from money 
collected for the reception at Ootaeammid of the then .Prince of 
Wales, who, owing to the prevalence of cholera, never came 
after all), was completed in 1878 by Colonel Morant at a cost of 
Rs. 16,000. This contained accommodation for 100 boys and 
the original building held 50. 

The school, however, soon failed to realize its early promise. 
Early in 1878 the headmaster, Mr. Ci'oley, left it and set up a 
school of his own in Bombay House and Government withdrew 
their monthly grant of Rs. 150. In 1879 the Commissioner 
reported that f the numbers on the rolls had fallen to nearly 
nothing ' and submitted proposals, which were not accepted by 
Government, for ' the resuscitation of the school.' 

In 1885 Government were anxious to acquire the school 
buildings for the use of the Civil Court, and the trustees agreed 
to hand them over on condition that Government constructed 
others in their place and paid ofE the Ha. 0,000 of debentures 
which, had been raised to help iu building them. Government did 
both j and put up the building by the side of the Wenlock Koad 
below the Army Head- quarters Offices which is the present habita- 
tion of the school. The institution flourished no better in its 
new quarters than it had in the old ones, and in 1888 was in such 
low water that the trustees induced the municipality to take it over, 
arguing that the trust deed had always intended that this should 
eventually be done. This arrangement went on until August 
1900, when, under the sanction of Government, the trustees re- 
assumed control and the council, which was by now heartily tired 
of the school's lack of success, restricted its assistance, which 



CHAP x. 
Educational 
Institutions. 



260 



THE NII.GIUIS. 



CHAP, X. 
Educational 
institutions. 



Lower seoojj' 
diiry schools 
for girls. 



The Hobavt 
School. 



Upper secon- 
dary schools 
for ftoya. 



had averaged about Rs, 1,000 in the preceding ten }cars, to Ha. 
600 por annum . At the same time the school, which in 1892 
had "been raised to 'the upper secondary grade, was reduced again 
In 1898, in the hope of increasing the institution's popularity, 
a boarding-house under tlio headmaster's charge had been 
opened in connection with it, but very few boys entered this and 
it was a gloomy failure. 

The re-transfer of the school to the trustees in MMI0 was not 
followed by any improvement. The condition in the trust deed 
.requiring natives in "be admitted to the institution operated to 
prevent European and Eurasian parents sending their sons there, 
while at the same time the fees were too high to enable many 
natives to avail themselves of the concession. In July 1904 the 
trustees at length closed the school for want of' funds to continue 
it ; and from 1st July 1905 Government vested the institution in 
the Treasurer of Charitable Endowments as a school for the 
children of Europeans and East Indians, and decided to arrange 
for the education of the native children contemplated in the trust- 
deed in some other schools in Ootacamuud. A new English 
headmaster was appointed in the same year and a boarding-house 
opened, and the hope is entertained that the school may come to 
be patronized by people residing on the plains and in otlier/ parts 
of India ancl not have to depend upon the supply of boys avail- 
able in Ootacanumd alone. It is too soon yet to tell how far 
these hopes will be realised and whether the school will proceed 
at length to justify its existence. 

Lower secondary schools for girls in the district are four in 
number; namely, the Lawrence Asylum referred to below, the 
Church of England Zenana Mission's Boarding Institution, the 
Hobart School managed by the same body and the St. Stephen's 
school under the care of the Government Chaplain. 

The Hobart School, a neat building in a fenced enclosure in 
the main bazaar, is named after Lady Hobart, who originally 
promoted it and contributed Rs. 500 out of the Its. 2,500 which it 
originally cost. The remainder was raised by subscription and 
the institution is vested in the Bishop and Archdeacon in trust. 
The attendance at the school is about 150. 

Upper secondary schools for boys are three in number ; namely, 
St. Joseph's school maintained by the Roman Catholic Mission at 
Coonoor, the Stanes School in the same town, and the Lawrence 
Asylum. 



EDUCATION. 261 

St, Joseph's School is for European hoys and has about one GHAl 1 . X. 
hundred children, (of whom 7 J aro boarders) on its roils. It was Eodcatiokm, 
opened at Wellington in May 1889 and transferred to Coonoor IXBTI ™ 0Ka - 
in 1892, wjien it was raised to its present grade. The Brothers Si. Joseph's 
of St. Patrick, a religious order of Irish monks, look charge of Co<m° V 
the institution in November 1892. 

The Stanes School at (Joouoor was established by Mr. T. -Hio Sta,u«a 
Rtanes in 1.87u for .European and Eurasian children. It was CJ0 °* 
originally intended to be primarily a girls' snhool, bat in 189-1, 
bhe boys in it out-numbering the girls, it was made a bojs 5 
school. The strength is now about 50. 

The Lawrence Asylum is named after bir Henry Lawrence, -pj ie j lgbWm 
K.o.u., who early in 1850 oJi'ered Rs. f),000 down and Ks, 1,000 reuse 
per annum if action wer« taken within three months to found at s ^ 
some Madras hill-station an Asylum similar to those already 
established at Sana war (near Kasanti) and Mount Abu. 1 In 
February of that year a meeting held in Ootacamuud decided to 
make every effort to carry out the project, and issued, an address 
and invited subscriptions. From the first, difficulty arose as to 
the religious principles to bo inculcated at the institution ; but at 
length, a prospectus for l the Ootacamuud Asylum for the Orphans 
and other children of European soldiers in India/ on a strictly 
Protestant basis, was issued. A committee was formed with 
Bishop Bealtry an its President, and by June 1850 lis. 8,705 in 
donations and Ks. 835 in yearly subscriptions had been promised 
or collected. 

The committee sought the aid of Government, but the latter 
said that their action would depend upon the support received 
from the army (the Commander-in-Chief objected to the restric- 
tion of the institution to Protestants) and the adoption of the 
rules of the Sanawat* Asylum, from which the committee had 
proposed to deviate. 

These difficulties and the outbreak ol the Mutiny led to the 
abandonment of the project for a time ; but in his will Sir Henry 
Lawrence had commended the scheme to the fostering care of 
the East India Company and this led to its being revived iu 
1858. At a meeting held at Ootacamuud in August of that year 
it was resolved to adopt the Mount Abu rules and to invite sub- 
scriptions on that basis; a new committee, of which Bishop 
Dealtry was again patron, was formed ; and early in 1859 
Stonehouse was purchased for Us. 22,600 for the institution; 

3 The early history ri thf* Asylum has been iafeeii from Mr. Grigy's 
* Ma.mbo.l~ 



262 the jw.aiBis. 

CHAP. X. 40 boys and two girls were established tliere ; and children of 
EBtrcATioxA r, military parents in Ootaenmuad were admitted as day-scholars. 
Institutions. rg} lQ <Jonations received amounted to Es. 37,727, annual subscrip- 
tions to Es. 6,100, and monthly to Us. 396, and the committee 
expected to receive Rs. 20,000 from the ' London Lawrence 
Memorial Fund ' and Bs. (->,500 from other sources. 

Meiin while correspondence had taken place between the 
committee, the authorities, and the Secretary of Stale regarding 
the transfer of the institution to the care of Government. 
Government insisted that the religions principles adopted at 
Sana war must be followed and in January 1860 the committee at 
length agreed to this. 

Subsequently a long- discussion occurred as to the desirability 
of amalgamating with the Lawrence Asylum tho Military Male 
Orphan Asylum at Madras; and eventually, in July 3 SCO, the 
Government of India recommended the scheme to the Secretary 
of State, and the Madras Public Works department was called 
upon to prepare plans and estimates for a building to hold the 
children of both the Asylums. 

The Secretary of State made no reply until 1862, and this 
delay was prejudicial to the institution, since the knowledge that 
Government had agreed to take it over resulted in a decline in 
public subscriptions and in the energy of the managing 
committee. His reply at length arrived, and expressed doubt 
whether the boys in the Madras Asylum, most of whom were of 
mixed blood, would benefit in health by a ohange to the 
Ootacanmnd climaie, hut considered that the extension of the 
male and female branches of the Ootacamund Asylum deserved 
every support. In July 1863, however, the Secretary of State, 
oa receipt of further representations, waived his objections to the 
amalgamation ; in the April following the present site at Love- 
dale was selected for the "buildings- for the combined institution ; 
and early in 1865 plans and estimates amounting to some eleven 
lakhs were prepared for erecting them. 

In 1.860 the buildings were sufficiently advanced to allow of 
the removal of the children (120 boys and 63 girls) to them from 
Stonohouse and Norwood ; in .1 871 the main block was completed ; 
and in September of that year the amalgamation with the Madras 
Asylum was effected, 220 children being sent to Lovedale from 
the latter. The proceeds of tho f cinder] property of the Madras 
Asylum, amounting to Es. 4,89,000, were devoted to the needs 
of the new joint institution, as were also the profits of the Law- 
rence Asylum Press in Madras. 'The income from these two 
sources is now about half a lakh a year. 



EDUCATION, 96S 

Mr. Chisholai was the architect of the new buildings. Tlie CHAP. X. 
boys' part is designed in the Italian Gothic style, and is a two- Educational 
sfcoreyed construction forming three sides of a quadrangle * 5T "' a f m? '' 3 ' 
a feature of which is the campanile, 130 feet in height. The 
girls were at first placed in the building intended for the 
hospital. 

Much of the "building work was done by Chinese convicts 
sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settle 3neiits (where 
there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more 
than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings 
in which they were confined at Lovedale. La 1867 seven of them 
got away and it was several days before they were apprehended 
by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to 
search. On the 28th July in the following year twelve others 
broke out during- a very stormy night and parties of armed police 
wore sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last 
arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were 
found in their possession, and one of the parties of police had 
disappeared — an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over 
the country for the party, and at length, on the 15th September, 
their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walagh&t, 
half way down the Sispara ghat path, neatly laid out in a row 
with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. 
It turned, out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had 
at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly- attacked 
the police and killed them with their own weapons. 

In 1884 the benefits of the Lawrence Asylum were extended 
by the admission to it of the orphan children of Volunteers who 
had served in the Presidency for seven years and upwards, it 
being however expressly provided that children of British soldiers 
were not to be superseded or excluded by this concession 

In 1899 the standard of instruction in the Asylum was raised 
to the upper secondary grade. In 1901 the rules of the institu- 
tion, which had been twice altered since 1864- to meet the " 
changes which "had occurred, were again revised and considerably 
modified. They are printed in fall in the annual reports. 

In 1903, owing to the South Indian Kailway- requiring for 
its new terminus at Egmore the buildings then occupied by the 
Civil Orphan Asylums of Madras, Government suggested that 
these should be moved to the premises on the Poonamallee Eoad 
In which the Military Female Orphan Asylum was established 
and that the girls in the latter, who numbered about 100, should 
• ~h& transferred to the Lawrance Asylum. The transfer was 



2CA 



the arcujiRis 



CHAP. X. effected in October 1904, new buildings costing Bs. 72,000 being 
Educatjokal put up at liovedale to provide the increased accommodation. 
Issthdtiows. re q 11 i re ^ ail d the income of tbe Military 3?em ale Asylum being 
applied to tbe uses of the combined institution. , 

The Asylum is now managed by a committee consisting of 
the Colonel on tbe Staff commanding tbe Soutbera Brigade 
(Chairman), the Collector, the Senior Medical Officer at Welling- 
ton, the Superintendent of the Cordite factory, the Com- 
mandant of the Wellington Dep6t, the Civil Surgeon of Ootaea- 
mund, and two other officials anil three non-officials resident 
at Ootaciunund appointed by Government, The Secretary to 
this committee is the Principal of the Asylum, who has usually 
been a Clergy man. of the Church of England. The expenditure 
on the male branch is about Bs. 1,10.000 per annum, of 
which Bs. 38,000 is derived from the Government grant-in-aid, 
Us. 39,000 comes from funded property and Bs. '37.000 from the 
Lawrence Asylum. Presses at Madras and Ootaeamund ; and 
that on the female branch is about Hs. 50,000, of which the 
Government grant provides Hs. 19,200. 

One of the express objects of the Asylum is to provide the 
children in it with a training which will enable them to earn a 
livelihood. Prominent parts of its course of instruction, there- 
fore, are the technical classes, uhich are the only ones held, in 
the district. Telegraphy, tailoring, carpentry, shorthand, type- 
writing, music and drawing have all been taught at different 
times. Efforts are also made to Iceep touch with the pupils after 
they have left the Asylum and thus assist them in earning their 
livings. The boys furnish a detachment, two companies strong, 
to the Nilgiri Volunteer Rifles. 

The upper secondary schools for girls in the district are all 
for Europeans and Eurasians and include St. Joseph's Convent 
School at Coonoor, and, at Ootaeamund, the Nazareth Convent 
School and the St. Stephen's Collegiate High School and 
Shedden House school, both of which latter are managed by the 
Sisters of the Church from the Kilburn Sisterhood. 

St. Joseph's at Coonoor was started in 1600 and h under 
the management of six Sisters of St. Joseph de Tarbes. It 
includes a boarding-house and has about 40 pupils. 

The Convent School a.t Ootaeamund is managed by the 
Knropean nuns there and contains about 50 boarders and day- 
scholars, many of -whom belong to the upper classes of society. 



Upper secoiv 
dory schools 
for girls. 



NDUCATION. 



265 



Instisomoa-s, 



rit. Stephen's iJollogiate School, near Sfc. Stephen's Olmroli, CHAP. x. 
has some 60 children oa its rolls. The teaching- is done by two Ebucatiosat, 
Sisters of the Church aad three assistants, and the Sisters also 
manage a connected boarding-establishment at s Bramley Hyrst/ 
near by, aad an orphanage and school under the control of the 
Chaplain, in which some 40 children are educated, clothed and 
fed free 3 chiefly from voluntary subscriptions. 

Shedden House School is intended for children of the better 
classes and contains about 50 pupils. The teaching staff 
consists of two Sisters, three resident governesses and other 
assistants. The school is not inspected by Government officials 
but is under the general control of the Bishop of the diocese. 

The Badagas, ICotas and T6das of the hills are classed by the Schools for 
educational authorities among those { backward classes ' 
benefit special educational effort is required ; and at present some 
40 schools are specially maintained for them, in which about 
1,270 pupils are under instruction. 1 The Todas have never 
displayed any more enthusiasm for learning tban they have for 
other ways of improving their material condition, and a special 
school started for them by the Church of England Zenana 
Mission Society had to be closed in 1904 owing to the lack of 
interest they took in it. Government have recently sanctioned 
the opening of a new school for them at Paikara and the insti- 
tution of several scholarships to encourage them to educate their 
children. 

Ootacamund has had its full share of newspapers. A list of Newspapers. 
them, with the approximate dates of their births and deaths, is 
appended : — 



' for whose J2E»™ 



— .„. 


— 





Name. 


From 


To 


Eclectic and Noilgherry Chronicle 


1860 


1801 


Neilgherry Star .. 


1862 


1803 


rTeilgherry Excelsior ... ... ... 


1863 


1871 


South of India Observer and Agricultural Times 


1867 


1873 


South of India Observer ... 


1873 


1894 


Sathiabotbini, a Tamil monthly periodica! 


1872 


IBM 


Neilgherry Courier 


1853 


1876 


Ooty Times . 


1884 


1885 


Nilgiri Express ... 


1886 


1889 


Nilgiri News 


1803 


1W2 


South of India Observer ... 


1902 





Except the Ooty Times, which during its short life aspired 
to a daily edition, all of them have heen published either weekly, 

i The carious will iind a sketch history of early eSorts in this direction, 
wbieh began as far back as 1839, in Mr. Gh'igg's Manual, '123-6, 

94 



LANS BITBKUB ADMIHISTBATIW. 287 

OH AFTER XL 
LAND REVENOE ADMIN1STHATION. 



Revenue History. On the Plateau— Settlements with the activating hill 
e&stos — The ( bhurty ' system— ' Ayan * grass and ' grazing pattaa ' — 
Nominal abolition of the bhurty system, 1883 — Abolition of plough and hoe 
taxes — Settlements with the Ti5das — And with European and other immi- 
grants — The Waste Land Bulea of 186d — MijainiKndi an excpptional tract — 
The survey of 1870-80. Tiir Existing Settlement of 1881-84 — Methods 
adopted thereat — Village establishmeofcs revised — Features of the settlement 
— Settlement of Hasinigodi. Bevenub History of the Wysaad— The 
former revenue system — The first survey — The escheat enquiry, The 
Exietimg Settlement — Its principles — Its results — Settlement of the Ouoh- 
terlony Valley. Existing Acmikibtbativjf. Arrangements. Appendix. 
Commissioners and Collectors of the SilgiriB. 

The Hstory of the administration of the land revenue on the OHAP. XI. 
plateau differs altogether from that in the Wynaad and the Kevsnce 
Ouchterlooy Y alley, and the two must he separately considered. 'stou t. 

On the plateau, the subject divides itself naturally under two Ok the 
heads ; namely, revenue settlements "with the hill castes and those Pw-teatt. 
■with Europeans. These must also he treated separately. 

Settlements with the hill castes -were again of two classes; Settlements 
namely, those with the Toda graziers and those with the rest of W1 |h *^? 
the population, who are cultivators ; and the latter may first he hill castes, 
disposed of. 

"When the plateau was first ceded to the British in 1799 by 
the treaty of Sermgapatam already (p. 102) referred to, it formed 
part of the Dannayakankottai taluk of the Coimbatore district. 
Haidar Ali and Ma son Tipa Sultan had collected revenue in it; 
hut except that their officers acted most mercilessly to the hill 
people, sometimes despoiling 1 them of the whole of their harvest 
and forcing them to carry their own plundered property down to 
Daimayakunkottaij little is known of the system (if system there 
were) on which they levied their assessments. They seem to 
have charged fUed money rates on all land held hy a ryot, 
whethesr it was cultivated each year or not, and when the district 
came into British hands the hill people had "become terribly im~ 
porerished and were usually heavily in arrear with their payments. 

The first settlement after the transfer of the country was 
"begun in December 1799 hy Major McLeod, Collector of Coimha- 
tore, and was based upon the karaams' accounts. Oonyiuced that 



268 



THK KIU4TKIS. 



CHAP. XI. tnese documents were usually inaccurate or false, Major MeLeod 
Eidvesue obtained sanction to survey the hills, and the work was supposed 
H !!?l Rr ' to have been carried out in 1800-01. In 1819 Mr. Sullivan 
however reported that this survey was a farce ; ' the extreme 
inclemency of the elimnte frightened the. surveyors and prevented 
them from doing more than making an estimate of the quantity 
and quality of the land and fixing the old rates of teerwa upon 
it.* He obtained sanctioa to a fresh survey, but apparently this 
was never completed. The average revenue up to 1813 was 
Es. "U 762, but during the next fourteen years it fell to Es. 0,400. 
At one time the right of collection was leased to a renter. 

The rates of assessment were undoubtedly low (they appear to 
have ranged from 14 annas 9 pies per acre to 3 annas 8 pies and 
to have varied with the appearance of the crop at harvest-time, 
when an estimate of the probable outturn was made by the talufc 
o-nnia^tahs andiarn&ms) 1 and the ryots benefited much by certain 
curious concessions which of old formed part of the revenue 
system of Ooimbatore ; namely, the ( bhurty, 3 or shifting, 
system, the f ayan' grass allowance and the c grazing pattas,.' 
The 'bhurty s Under the bhurty system, a ryot was allowed to hold tracts 
system- ^ much as five (or even ten) times greater than the extent shown 

in his patta and for which he paid assessment ; to pay only for 
that portion of them which he actually cultivated each year ; and 
to retain without payment a preferential lien on plots formerly 
tilled by him, which he could return to and cultivate in rotation. 
These plots might be miles apart and even in different nads ; but 
if SO acres only were entered in the patta the ryot only paid for 
20 and yet claimed rights of occupation, to the exclusion of 
all other applicants, in perhaps 200 acres made up of scattered 
fields in which, he selected each year the 20 acres, in one or many- 
pieces, which, he meant to cultivate and pay for, leaving the rest 
fallow. 

The system would not have been quite so pernicious had the 
extents in which these occupancy rights were claimed been 
properly limited ; but in the absence of any demarcation or proper 
survey they were neither defined nor even identified ; and claims 
to them usually depended merely upon the assertions of the n|id 
headmen and the connivance of the subordinate revenue officials. 
If these people did not wish an applicant for land to be successful, 
they could easily set up some one to declare that the area selected 
was his bhurty land and. there was no one to gainsay them. 

1 Oiiclitei'losy's survey report, 26, 89. 



grass 
'racing- 



LAND I! fi VENUE ADilLStttiTEATlON. 2^9 

The i ay an ' grass allowance was a concession whereby a ryot CHAi'. Xl 
obtained possession, under tins name, of a certain portion, not botes v*e 
exoeeding one-fifth, of liis holding as fallow at one-fourth of the IIIST0IiY ' 
proper assessment. This enabled him to defeat any applicant for 
a portion of his nominal holding by declaring that that portion was an ^'f? 
hisayan grass land. l Grazing pattas J were granted at one-iburth 
tho usual assessment for inferior land and permitted a ryot to hold 
the land covered by them until it was required for cultivation by 
himself or another. But the ryot had a preferential right to such 
land ; and this again enabled him to defeat any one who wished to 
obtain possession of it, 

These three concessions rendered it most difficult for Euro- 
peans wishing to start cotfee or other estates to obtain airy land. 
Indeed it mig-ht ( safely be said that, with, the exception of the 
home-farm lands of eaeh hamlet, the rest of the area, cultivable 
or imenltivable, forest or swamp, included within tho bounds of 
the several nads or rural divisions was practically at tho disposal 
of the village elders and subordinate revenue officials ' 

In 1.802 the opposition of these economically unsound systems sominu.! 
to the development of the district was brought prominently to abolition °£ 
notice; and after much correspondence between the Collector, ayste»^i86 
the Board, the Government and tho Secretary of State it was 
decided in "1863 that the bharty system should be abolished; 
that j as in other districts, a ryot should have no claim to land not 
mentioned in his patta and. for which he paid no assessment ; 
and that as compensation for the withdrawal of a long-standing 
concession thp rates of assessment should be reduced. Assess- 
ments above As. 13 per acre wore lowered to As. 10; those be- 
tween As. 13 and As. to As. 8 ; between As. and As. 6 to As. 8 ; 
between As. 6 and As. -1 to As. -1 ; and those below As. 4 to As, 2, 
These reductions amounted on thp average to about 25 per cent. 

In May 18H4 the Collector (Mr. Grant), who had been 
directed to carry these orders into effect, said of the hhurty 
system : " It has ceased, and the people now regard it as a by- 
gone system ; it is never alluded to/ But as a matter of fact it 
had by no means ceased. There was no proper survey to check 
the Badagas' holdings, and though they doubtless avoidec 7 all 
allusion to the bhnrty system they practised it as freely as i W ; 
they were in the comfortable position of having lost none ^yj|ir 
former privileges while they had at the same time gainef, k ^O'e 
reduction in their assessments. 



270 



THE ftXLGXHU. 



CHAP XX. 

Hevekub 
HisTonr. 



SetfciemerttB 
wife the 



Up to then tlie revenue system in force there had consisted in 
la-vying a tax of Ee. I or Be. 1-8 for the right to drive a plough 
(<?r) and of 4 annas to 8 annas for permission to nse a hoe {hottu), 
and was consequently called erkddu hottvMdu. Under thia s the so- 
called patta issued to the ryot was really no more than a licsnaa 
to use one or move ploughs or hoes as the caao might he ; it 
specified the amount to be paid, "but in no case defined the extent 
or position of the land which might he cultivated ; and the ryot 
used his implements when and where he pleased. No restric- 
tions, even on the felling 1 of forests, were imposed ; and hill-sides 
and valleys were cleared promiscuously. 

Mr. Grant was again confident of the value of his action. 
( The door to much fraud has "been cloned/ he declared, £ a,nd the 
sources of endless disputes and false claims to lands have been 
swept away; ■whilst the Burghers (Badagas) and Government 
have both immediately benefited., the former by the reduction of 
assessment and the latter by an increased revenue.' But as a 
matter of fact the work had been so indifferently performed that 
the particulars of area entered in the new pattas -were utterly 
unreliable ; no boundaries -were given ; and the only cluo to the 
land was its indefinite traditional name. ' Sources of dispute 
and false claims to lands, so far from being swept away, were 
rather more numerous and fruitful than before/ and twenty 
years later the Settlement Officer found that tho plough and 
hoe tax system was still actually in existence in the village of 
Kinnahorai. 

We may now turn to the TiSdas, The earliest English settlers 
on the plateau, and notably Mr. Sullivan, strongly advocated 
the absolute proprietary right of these people to the whole of 
the plateau, urging that they were the earliest arrivals there ; 
had pastured their buffaloes on its grass for years without let or 
question ; and had only permitted the Badagas to cultivate land 
on the hills on condition that they paid the Todas the rent in 
grain called giidu which they still annually handed over. A rival 
school, led at first by the Governor, Mr. S. R. Lushingtonj 
argued that throughout India tho proprietary right in tho soil 
belonged to the State ; that the Todas had from time immemorial 
paid to the ruling power a tax on all their female buffaloes as 
well as an assessment on the grasing land in the immediate 
neighbourhood of their mauds ; and that the gMn, which literally 
means ' basket of grain/ was paid by the Badagas to other 
tribes as well as to the T6das, was paid to the latter only by 
some of the Badagas, and was apparently less a rent for land 



LAKD ttXVBNUE iTOUHIBTB ATIOK . 



271 



occupied than a free-will offering to avert, the displeasure o£ tlie 
T6das, who were supposed to possess malignant powers of sorcery 
by which they oould compass the ruin of those who did not 
sufficiently propitiate them. 

Private individuals at first bought land at Ootaeaniund from the 
Tddas as though the latter were the possessors of the freehold 
thereof (Mr. Sullivan purchased the site of Stonehouse in this 
way) and Government at first tacitly recognized the titles so 
obtained. They first dealt formally with the question in 1828, 
ordering that European settlers should pny the T6das, for all areas 
occupied, '' compensation for the usufruct of the land which they 
have hitherto enjoyed 3 at the rate of sixteen times the annual 
assessment paid by the To das for pasture ; but by 1881 (when 
Mr. Sullivan had ceased to be Collector) the claims of the tribe 
were forgotten again and Eurasian settlers were granted waste 
without payment of any such compensation. In 1835 Mr. 
Sullivan, who was now in Council, revived the question. His 
views bordered on the romantic, for he urged that the T6das 
had possessed a janmam right to the plateau land from a remote 
antiquity ; but he carried the Government of the day and the 
Court of Directors with him. Fresh instructions were issued re* 
arding the manner in which the T6das ' supposed rights should be 
respected, and after much wrangling with these people (who were 
by no means slow to appreciate the position to which they had 
been elevated) an annual sum of Rs. 150 (apparently interest at 
5 per cent, on the total amount) was ordered to be paid them as 
compensation, at the rate prescribed in 1828 3 for land which had 
beea taken up in the cantonment of Ootacamund. This sum 
is still annually disbursed to the Todas of Ootacamund and 
Nanjanad, being treated as a set-off against the amounts due 
under certain pattas of theirs ; and Us. 165 is also annually 
paid to the Todas (and Badagas) of Taldcatalla for land taken 
up subsequently for the Wellington cantonment. 

In 1840 the pendulum swung back again and Mr. 0. M. 
LushmgtoG, now Senior Member of Council, vigorously and ably 
attacked Mr. Sullivan's position. In 1843 the question was 
once more referred to the Directors and the latter set it finally 
at rest in their despatch of June of that year, which held 
that the T6das possessed nothing more than a prescriptive right 
to pasture their herds, on payment of a small tax, on Government 
land. The Court desired that they should be secured from inter- 
ference by settlers in the enjoyment of their manda and the spots 
appropriated to their religious rites, and pattas were accordingly 



OHAt\ XI. 
Revenue 
History, 



272 1'IIK NIUiTRltf. 

CHAP. XL issued granting Co each maad three ballas (li'4(i tiered) of la ad. 
Kcvenue In 1383 Mr. Grant obtained permission to make aa additional 
.!_„ * allotment of nine Dallas (34"33 acres) to each maad oa tlie express 
condition that this should bo used only for pasturage and that 
neither it nor the forest on it should ever be alienated. The 
reservations thus made (which in many cases now exceed the 
twelve ballas originally granted) are regarded as the inalienable 
common property of the T6da cummunity ; the practice of leasing 
them to Badagus and others for cultivation was eheoWl in 1^8'J 
by the imposition, of penal assessment on tiny patches so treated ; 
and, us has been explained above (p. 212) . they are now controlled 
by the Forest department audur a set of rules which, while they 
ensure to the Todas the enjoyment of thfii* ancient privileges in 
them, check all one roauhme tits upon them by any others. 
And wH.U The first European settlers on the hills, as has beoa seen, 

Boropeanand u || eji bong'ht. land from the Todas. For some years no assess- 
sraats. meat was levied irom them, but m 1828 the)- were required to 

take out leases from Government and pay the usual quit-rent 
charged on such grants, namely !£ pagodas (Ks. 5-4-G) on each 
oawnie (1*32 acre) of land, or Bs. 3-15-0 per acre. Many pro- 
perties in Ootacamnad are still held under the old grants then 
made. Rales, which were never enforced, were drawn up at the 
same time restricting the space to be allotted to each dwelling'- 
house to two cawnies, or about 2-f acres. The above high rate 
of assessment was at first held to apply to all land, even that held 
for agricultural purposes, in the uplands of Tortan&d ; but in 
1836, at Mr. Sullivan's suggestion the rates on cultivated land 
at a distance from Ootaoainimd were reduced to those paid by the 
Badagas, while those on land cultivated by immigrants within a 
certain definite area round the town, known as ' the settlement of 
Ootacamund/ were charged special double rates in view of the 
fertility of the soil and the proximity of the market for produce. 

In January 1837, it having been brought to notice that the 
rates of quit-rent pressed heavily upon house-owners in Ootaca- 
mund, Government decided to charge Es. 0-4-0 only for the first 
oawnie of any building grant and Be, 1-2- A per cawrie for the 
rest of the land in it. In 1842 an elaborate manual of rides for 
the disposal oi land was drawn up, but it did not come into force 
until the completion of Major Gnchterlony's survey in 1847. It 
provided for the grant of thirty years' leases of land for agricul- 
tural purposes and muety-niae years 1 leases, renewable ayery 
thirty-three years, for building sites, Many conditions now rarely 
observed were inserted in these leases ; ono in particular provided m 



HlSTOET. 



LAND BlYENTTE ADMIHISTEATIOST. 273 

that on their expiration the land, with the buildings on it, should CiJAP. ST, 
revert absolutely to (toy eminent. Some modifications were infcro- Revenue 
duced in 1858 and in the following year the redemption of the 
quit-rent was Allowed to "be made at twenty (subsequently raised 
to •twenty-five) years' purchase. This privilege was withdrawn, 
however, in 1890. 

The Government had for some time been desirous of intro- The Waste 
dueing some method of auctioning land, but the abolition of the JfJggJ* 19 * 
bhurty system already referred to was a necessary preliminary to 
any such plan. So long' as large and indefinite areas could be 
claimed to be some one's bhurty nnd there was no evidence on the 
point one way or the other except the testimony of the claimant's 
relations and friends, it was almost impossible for any outside 
applicants to get land from Government. When the bhurty 
system was at length, done away with, the Waste Land Rules of 
1883, which had long been under discussion, were introduced 
(waste land being defined as that in which no rights of private 
proprietorship or exclusive occupancy existed) and an Act was 
passed to facilitate the disposal of claims to areas put up for sale 
under them. They provided that land applied for was to be demar- 
cated and surveyed and then sold to the highest bidder subject 
to an upset price to cover the cost of survey and to an annual 
assessment of Ks. 2 per acre for forest land and Re. 1 for grass. 

The Waste Land Rules once introduced, it was laid down that 
no one, European or native, could thenceforth obtain a grant of 
any land by any other means. In each of the first three years 
after their introduction between 2,000 and 3,000 acres were sold. 
under them to European planters, but they were never popular 
and the sales soon fell off . In no year between 1867 and 1874 
did the area sold exceed 850 acres and in 1868-69 it amounted to 
only four acres. The reasons for this were partly tha,t owing to 
the inadequacy of the district staff great delay occurred in the 
survey and sale of any land applied for, and partly that there was 
nothing to prevent an outsider appearing at the sale and outbid- 
ding the applicant for land which, he had taken much time and 
trouble to select. Sometimes also the applicant would be run up 
through private enmity ; sometimes by owners of adjoining land 
"who did not want him to come competing with them for the 
( small available stock of labour and manure; and sometimes by 
speculators who gambled on the chance of his afterwards agree- 
ing to buy the land from them at an enhanced price rather than 
face all the delay, uncertainty and expense involved in malcmg a 
fresh application. 
35 



274 



THE NILeiBZB. 



Mastmgndi 
an excep- 
tional tract. 



The survey 
of 1870-80. 



Tkf, Existing 

SffiTTIiEMiDNi; 

off 1881- Si 



In 1871 the rate of Re. 1 per acre for grass land was reduced 

to 8 annas and the assessment on forest land was remitted for the 
first five years from the dale of purchase on the Nilgiris and for 
the first three years in the ~Wy naad (where coffee came to maturity 
more quickly) so that buyers should have to pay nothing- for their 
land until it was bearing a crop. In 1874 grass land taken up 
for tea or firewood plantations was similar!)' exempted ; in 1883 
this concession was extended to hind acquired for coffee or cin- 
chona also ; and in 1004 to any special products of economic im- 
portance which might be specified by Government. In 1899 the 
rales were partly revised, and special conditions now govern the 
acquisition of land within the limits of Ootacamund and Coonoor. 

It should be mentioned that neither the "Waste Land Bales 
nor Mr Grant's simple rates of assessment of 1863 were ever 
introduced into the tract round Masinigudi between the northern 
foot of the plateau and the Moyar. This area has always been, 
and still is, administered on the ordinary ryotwari system usual 
elsewhere on the plains. 

Up to 1 870 isolated blocks of land applied for under the Waste 
Land Kules and properties in the three chief towns had been sur- 
veyed by special staffs, bat no general survey had been under- 
taken since Oiichterlony's in 1847. In 1870 this general aurvey 
was ordered and begun ; but the want of proper village establish- 
ments, the unhealthiness of the district and the interruptions 
caused by the Great Famine of 1876-78 so much delayed matters 
that it was not until ly80 that the work was completed. 

One o! the chief disclosures which resulted from it was that 
the bhurty system, which Mr. Grant had declared to be dead so 
far bach: as 1883, was in reality almost as full of vitality as ever. 
The Badagas had bought scarcely an acre under the Waste Land 
Bules, and yet their holdings were much larger than those shown 
in the 1803 pattas and they claimed further additional areas on the 
old plea that they had reoently cultivated them and so had a pre- 
scriptive right to them. They were treated with liberab'ty, and 
allowed to hold whatever land they had cultivated and also 
adjoining waste blocks. 

In 1881 the survey was followed by a settlement. This was 
conducted by Mr. (now tiir Italph) Benson, I.C.S., and to his 
report on its completion in 1884 this chapter is greatly indebted. 
It was indeed high time that some order and method was intro- 
duced into the revenue accounts a.nd village establishments. 

' There were no revenue villages, for the ol&naels (sometimes called 
villages) more properly corresponded to taluks or divisions. TManad - 



LAND JtEVESfUK ADMINISTRATION. 275 

alone contains 217,000 acres. There were hardly 8,117 village establish- CHAP. XI, 

ments and, such as existed were miserably remunerated. Scarcely a the Insisting 

headman in the district could read, and the land revenue accounts of Settlement 

all lands, except those in the quit-rent and plantation registers, were ° ~ * 



I to be kept by four karnams paid about its, 3 per mensem 
each. As a fact, it may be said that no accounts were kept except the 
chitta (individual ledger) ami some imperfect collection accounts . . 
. . The quit-rent and plantation registers, -which related mostly to 
the lands of European planters or to lands in Ooonoor and Ootacaniund, 
were kept in the Oommissiouer's office, and, as the bills for assessment 
were also issued from his office, much of his time was spent in matters 
which would properly devolve on the tahsildars. It often happened, 
too, that, between these several registers kept fcy the karnam and the 
Commissioner, land escaped registration (and assessment) altogether. 
Each office thought that trie land was in the other's register. There 
were no general registers for fixed areas, nor did the registers usually 
state the tenure on which any land was held. vSoine lauds were ordinary 
patta lands. Others were held on restricted pattas, of which there were 
three classes : — those issued to (1) Europeans, (2) Xodas, and (3) Irulas. 
Other lands were held under "Waste Land Rules, deeds, 01- under 
permanent pattas or under ninety-nine years' leases, or (in Welling- 
ton) fifty years' leases. There were also quit-rent lands not held on 
iease ; and free-holds and firewood allotments, and lands held on special 
deeds or terms. In such it multiplicity of titles it is easy to see how 
important it is th-ifc the registers should be clear and well kepk' 

The settlement thus had to deal with a condition of things weihods 
differing widely from the normal ; and consequently its methods adopted 
were quite unlike those of the ordinary settlements on the plains. 
Soils were not classified ; nor were the existing rates of assess- 
ment altered. The work consisted chiefly in the revision of the 
revenue accounts and the proper entry in them of all land in 
occupation and the assessment chargeable thereon. A set of rules 
governing the procedure to be followed was drawn up by the 
Settlement Commissioner and, the modus operandi was briefly as 
follows : — 

' (1) Each nad, or division, was sub-divided into villages of eon- 
verdant size for administrative purposes, natural or well known 
boundaries being adopted as far as possible, and due regard being 
paid, to area, population, revenue arid such like matters. The four 
nads were thus split up into thirty-six villages. 

(2) A map of the village was then obtained horn, the survey 
department and the fields were numbered consecutively. 

(3) "With this map and the survey registers relating to the lands 
in the village, a subordinate was sent to the village, and, with the 
assistance of the revenue officials, he made a preliminary inquiry into 
all matters in dispute connected with the survey or settlement, and 



376 THE NiLGlKtS. 

CHAP. XI. with the registration of transfers of paitas, applications for land, 

Che Existing improper inclusion of forests in private holdings, statistics of culti- 

SMTLisaEKT vation etG , 

oir 1881-84. 

(4) On Ins return to office he reported particulars of each matter 

to the Settlement Officer and received orders on doubtful cases which 
required no inspection o£ the land or further inquiry. The matters 
requiring 1 inspection or further inquiry were noted by the Settlement 
Officer, and then the village was inspected by him in detail. Grants 
of land applied for under the Settlement Rules were disposed of, or } if 
necessary, reported to the Collector or Government. Tillage grazing 
lands were selected and set apart. Keserves for roads, streams, 
swamps and forests, not previously made, were selected and recorded. 
Lands available for sale were also selected and recorded. Lists of 
new demarcations required, owing either to omissions or errors in the 
original surveys, were prepared; and the necessary detailed orders 
were sent to the Survey Officer for execution. Government lands 
claimed without title were inspected and the necessity (or otherwise) 
of resisting the claim was considored. Where valuable forests were 
included in private holdings the rights of Government were asserted, 
and where large excess areas were included and there appeared no 
objection to the occupation of lands, a patta was issued on such terms 
as to future assessment and payment of arrears or penalty aB was 
considered reasonable, the Collector being consulted in all important 
cases. Inam lands were dealt with in accordance with G.O,, Ko. 212, 
dated 11th February 1884. 

(5) All the above points having been settled, and the new 
surveys having been made, a general register of all the lands in the 
village was framed, showing not only all private holdings with the 
area, rats of assessment and total assessment payable thereon and the 
tenure on which held, but also showing all Government lands ranged 
under their appropriate heads as reserved forest, swamp, road, stream, 
grazing, ground, available for gale, etc. The distinction between lands 
registered in the Collector's office and in the fcarnaia's was abolished, 
and all the lands (including many which had previously escaped 
registration altogether) were entered in tile one village register. 

(8) Brief descriptive memoirs of each important estate were 
them prepared in communication, with the proprietors. 

(7) From the ganoral register the chitta (or individual ledger) 
was prepared, showing for each landowner in the viilage the several 
lands held by him, and he was furnished with a copy of this, under 
the name of the settlement rough patta, and asked to bring to notice 
any errors or omissions within a fixed time. 

(8) After all appeals had been heard, the maps and registers 
were finally 1 revised, abstract statements prepared, a descriptive ■ 
memoiv and register in diglott written up and sent to be printed with 
an eye sketch of the village bound up with the register. 



i-AHD HEVENUE ADMINISTRATION. 277 

(9) The map of the village, numbered io correspond with the CHAP. XI. 
register, and prepared on the scale 18 inches = 1 mile, was then sent Tt-m .Existing 
to the Survey office to be lithographed and sold to the public. The Settlement 
memoir and register, on being printed, was also made available for 01 ' } ' 
s&le'to the public and was supplied, with a copy of the map, to all the 
public offices of the district.' 

To provide for the proper future maintenance o£ the accounts Village e&fcab. 
and registers thus drawn up it was absolutely necessary to re^^j 1118 
strengthen the village establishments, which were small and 
inadequately paid by assignments of revenue. A complete scheme 
for their revision was accordingly prepared by the Settlement 
Officer and sanctioned by Grovernment ; and the Village Cess Aet 
of 1804 was specially extended to the district by Act I of 1S83. 1 
Certain modifications of this scheme were made in 1895. 

One of the most important (and most popular) features of the features of 
settlement was the grant thereat of unallotted lands to those who se* tIe - 
appliod for them. Native pattadars were granted, at an assess- 
ment of 10 annas per aero, such land as they wanted round their 
holdings to a total extent of 4,370 acres ; and owners of estates 
were given, at Ks. 2 per acre, aroas which they required to round 
off their boundaries, provide grazing for their cattle and so on, 
to a total extent of 4,075 acres. Both classes obtained this land 
with less troublo and expense than would have been involved if 
they had bought it under the Waste Land Bnles, and as they 
would never have taken it at all under thot>e rules Government 
gained by the payment of assessment on a large area which 
otherwise would have remained unappropriated. Every grant 
was inspected by the Settlement Officer to see that it included 
no forest and was otherwise unobjectionable. Village grazing- 
grounds to the extent of 24,061 acres wore similarly inspected 
and set aside for communal use; and 18,366 acres more were 
classifier! as available for sale under the Waste band Rules. 

The survey had disclosed an excess of no Ie8S than 75*5 per 
cent, in the ©stent actually occupied over that shown in the old 
revenue accounts, and (including the grants above referred to) 
the nei increase in area and assessment brought about by the 
survey and settlement was -50,890 acres assessed atRs. 45,818, the 
bitter figure being 136'2 per coat, more than the former revenue. 

The average assessment on land held by the indigenous 
cultivating castes, as fixed at the settlement, was only a fraction 
over six a anas an acre ; but on the other hand they were now for 

1 A filtf.u'6 hihtory of tlio old village establishments will be found in 
-»Hr. l&rlo\¥*s Mies- m &.U., No, 3*2. legislative, dafcer! 38th November 1882, 
The villagt* cvbh h»b itboiished ftith t>llect fv<am 1st April 1906. 



278 THE HILGIEIS. 

CHAP. X?. the first time obliged to pay for all the land in their occupation, 

The Bxistiks and since much of the soil is too poor to be regularly cropped 

oi' issi-ik. $iey bad to pay the assessment on their fallows from the produce 

— — oi the land they actually cultivated. Until the settlement was 

introduced, the old 'bhurty 3 system had remained in. full "force 

;md such fallows paid nothing. 

The general results of the survey aud settlement were summed 
up as follows by Mr. Benson : — 

' All private holdings have been defined, mapped and registered. 
Every man now knows his own, and can have a plan of it for a few 
annas. The long pending: disputes between Q-overnnient and land- 
holders as to their boundaries have been settled. Large areas of 
forest, wrongfully claimed, have been recovered for Q-overnment, and 
titles (so far as pattas are titles) have been granted for the areas 
admitted at, settlement to belong to claimants, thus rendering their 
properties more valuable and more marketable. Considerable areas 
have been granted to private persons undex the Settlement Sales, to 
their no small satisfaction aDd the increase of the public revenues. 
The land revenue accounts have been thoroughly revised, and efficient 
village establishments have, for the first time, been organized to keep 
the accounts and attend to the collection of the revenue and other 
cognate duties. The areas available for sale in the demarcated, 
portions of the district have been registered; so that both the public 
aud the district officers can know them merely by examining i]\e maps 
and registers. In like manner all the lands reserved as forest, swamp, 
road, stream, etc., and the areas set apart as village grazing grounds 
in the demarcated portions of the district have been defined and 
recorded, both on. the ground and in the maps and registers.' 
Settlaounfc of Masinigudi village, as already explained; had always been 
HasinlgadL treated differently to the land on the plateau and the settlement 
there was revised subsequently on tho ryotwari system. Land 
in occupation was surveyed and demarcated in 1885-86 and the 
seventeen rates of assessment (two for wet and fifteen for dry 
land) in force were reduced to nine, wet land being charged 
either Bs. 3 or Bs. 2 per acre and dry laud seven rates ranging 
from Ks. 2-8 to 4 annas. 
Ebvkkok The earliest British revenue settlement of the South-east 

H Pw R * °* Wynaad was carried out about 1806, shortly after the death of 
'. i l the Pychy rebel' referred to on p. 105 above, by Mr. Warden, the 
revenue Principal Collector of Malabar, within which district the Nilgiri 

system. "Wynaad then lay. His method consisted in. ascertaining by 

experiment the produce of seed, sown in each anisara (in the 
Nilgrri Wynaad this was fixed at nine-fold) ; finding out the 
number of potis of seed per acre which was sown by the ryot 
(a poti equals 80 seers) ; multiplying this by the figure nine (tlfc 



IAMB BE VENUE ADMINISTRATION, 279 

multiple outturn) to get the gross produce ; deducting there- OHAP. xi, 
from three potis per acre for cultivation espouses ; dividing tho Kevknur 
remainder equally between the ryot, the janmi and Government ? ^"wykaad 

and commuting the Government's one third at rates varying 

with local circumstances. The obvious disadvantages of this 
method were that it was impossible to find out how much seed 
really was sown ; that the figure of multiple outturn was the 
same for all soils — good, had or indifferent— in each amsam ; and 
that the commutation rates varied at the will of subordinates. 
Partly to meet these drawbacks, the amount of seed sown was 
allowed to be arbitrarily assumed and lowered or raised according' 
to local circumstances, such as the poverty of the land or its 
liability to damage by elephants ; and the commutation rates 
were fixed for each amsam. But clearly these steps did not 
remove the objections to the system, for the amsam officials who 
were left to fix the amount o£ seed sown were often themselves 
large proprietors who were interested in putting it as low as 
possible, and it was not fair to have the same commutation rate 
for remote "villages as for those near large centres. "Eventually the 
assumed amount of seed sown was gradually so reduced by the 
amsam officials that it came to only one-half (or even one-fourth) 
of the actuals, and the Government share of the crop was dimi- 
nished in proportion. Subsequently janmahhogam was separately 
assessed on land which was Government janmam and in I860 
the rate of this was fixed at 8 annas per acre on all occupied land, 
whether it was cultivated or not. Juggling with the figures by 
the amsam officials however resulted in even this fixed payment 
being much reduced in practice. 1 

Dry land was not assessed until 1863, when it was charged 
Be. 1-4-0 per acre when spasmodically cultivated or 10 annas per 
acre if held permanently. The Government janmabhogam on 
this was again fixed at S annas per acre. In 1860 land cultivated 
with coffee was assessed at Es. 2 per acre from the third year after 
planting plus the usual janmahhogam. The South-east Wynaad 
was transferred to this district in 1877 and these systems conti- 
nued until the present settlement was begun in 1886. 

The first survey of the Wynaad was begun in 1 859 and The first 
carried, on in a fitful and desultory manner under the supervision saivp f* 
alternately of the Settlement department and the Collector of 
Malabar until 1870, when it was made over to the Survey depart- 
ment. It was not completed until 1879 and was brought up to 
date in 1886. 

— * Interesting detailed particulars of this caaual system will be found, ia 
My. Caatlestuarto Stuart's report in B.P., Ho. 2869, dated 13th. October 1885. 



280 



THE NIT.GTRIS. 



The esolieat 
enquiry. 



CHAP. XI. Between 1884 and 1885 a detailed enquiry way made into the 

Eevence extents oi land winch had escheated to Government owing to 
the Wynaad, their laving belonged to tie Pycly rebel and lis followers and 
laving accordingly been declared to be sequestrated. The matter 
lad long been discussed academically and tie necessity for 
speedily concluding it in earnest was emphasized by tie gold- 
boom of 1879-83, during the course of which land wlicli was 
apparently Government property had been leased and sold to 
the mining companies by the local janmis. 

The results of tic enquiries then made have all been printed 
and go to show that there is reason for supposing that janmam 
right above the ghats was a creation of British administration 
and due to insufficient knowledge among the earlier officers of the 
true position of affairs. However this may bo, the net up-shot of 
tie enquiries was that, of the three amsams comprised in the 
Milgiri "Wynaad, Wambalakod was declared to be the janmam 
property of the Nilanibur Tirunmlpad and 27 per cent, of JVfunana'd 
and 1 per cent, of Oherankod to be similarly the janmam land of 
tie Wandur Nambudrip&d. the JMellialam Arasu and two other 
smaller proprietors. The Ouclterlony Valley is also the janraam 
property of the Nitambuv Tiruraulpad. 

The Esisi'iko The necessity of permanently securing the results of this 
jreN " 1 '* escheat enquiry bv tie preparation of regular and complete land 
pf e r inCi ~ registers of tie usual kind led to tie resettlement of the Wynaad. 
The work was begun in 1^80, 

Tie following are the principles upon which it proceeded: 
Land was classed as wet or dry, tie former including the 
numerous paddy-Hats and swamps locally known as vayals, nilams, 
or ihandams ; wet land was assessed at ni ae rates varying by incre- 
ments of four annas from 8 annas to Us. 2-8-0 per aero according 
to tie soil, though no land was in practice charged either of tie 
two highest rates; dry hind was assessed at four rates ranging by 
increments of 8 annas from 8 annas an acre to Hs. 2, the soils being 
roughly classified under tie four leadings of (a) forest and 
coffee, etc. , cultivation, (6) superior scrub, (c) inferior scrub and 
best grass and (d) inferior grass ; on Government janmam. land, 
wletler wet or dry, a janmallogam of 8 annas per acre, was 
charged; existing coffee, etc., estates held under private janmis 
oi in Government escheats were assessed at Ra. 2 per acre 
for all land cultivated in tlem and 8 pies per acre for unculti- 
vated areas ; but land held under the Waste Land Bules was not 
affected and estates held on Government patta were treated like 
Ordinary land. Tie fundamental alteration in tie existing systeiS 



LAND REVENUE ADM I NI STRATI OK. 281 

was that a tax on occupation, as in other settled districts, was CHAP. XI. 
substituted for one on cultivation, or rather on the extent of culti- I'he Existing 
ration returned "by an inadequate and badly-paid subordinate 1UTLEM ''' lKT ' 
revenue staff. 

The net results of the settlement., which was concluded ea.rly Ite results, 
in 1887, were as under: On wet land, the extent assessed, the 
assessment; and the janmabhogam were raised by 168 ; y27 and 
284 per cent, respectively ; on estates by 7&4, Gland 9,385 per 
cent, respectively ; on dry holdings other than estates by 22 } 187 
and 2 per cent, respectively ; and on. all descriptions of land taken 
together by 403, 139 and 225 per cent, respectively. 

These startling increases were explained to be chiefly due to 
the great extent of concealed cultivation which had been brought 
to light, to the manner in which the Government demand under 
the former settlement had been whittled down by the tower 
revenue subordinates, and to the results of the escheat enquiries, 
which had resulted in janmabhogam being 1 levied on large extents 
which had previously escaped It was pointed out that the 
average assessment on occupied wet land was ho low as Be. 1-12-9 
per acre. The enhanced wot rates were eventually introduced hy 
degrees, the increase being added by increments at the rate of 25 
per cent, annually. 

Hardly had the settlement come into force when the High 
Court's well-known judgment declaring that Government should 
issue pattas in the name of the janmi, and nofc of the occupier, 
was promulgated ; and. many of the registers had to be re-written. 

The Secretary of State was apprehensive of the result of the 
great increase in assessment which the settlement had brought 
about and directed that the effect of it should be carefully watched. 
A series of reports on this point thus came to be written in. the 
years which followed. The District Officers were for the most 
part of opinion that, though the coffee and other estates had been 
treated leniently enough, the increased rates imposed on wet and 
dry cultivation by natives did not sufficiently allow for the facts 
that the labour supply was scarce ; the couutry very unhealthy; 
and the ravages of wild animals, particularly pig, deer and 
elephants, most serious in certain parts. They pointed out that 
members of the Ohetti lanclholding class were now to be seen 
working for daily wages on cofTee estates, a thing unknown hi 
former days. Government; however, after considering the whole 
question at length on several successive occasions, adhered to the 
view that the assessments on thy wholy were not too high and 
that the considerable relinquishments of wet land which had - 
36 



282 



THE SFILGHRIS. 



CHAP. XI. 
Tii&Existikg 
sstslemekt. 



Setiileiaent 
of the 

Onohteriony 
Talley. 



MXISTSSH 
AlJMlHISSEA- 

TIVB Att- 
&AN0£MBNTS. 



undoubtedly occurred were due to the Ghettis ahaudoning worth- 
less patches now that they had for the first time to pay lor all 
land in their occupation, and not merely for the areas they 
actually cultivated. 

The Ouchterlony Valley, the position "and history of which 
are sketched on pp. 372-877 below, was first surveyed in 1872; was 
resurveyed in 1887, and was settled in 1889. The land tenure 
there is the same as in the JNilgiri Wynaad, the Nilambur Tiru- 
mulpad being the janmi ; and the new settlement followed the 
principles adopted in the latter area. There was no wet land in 
the Talley nor any dry fields of the ordinary kind, and the only 
areas under cultivation were coffee and other estates. These had 
formerly been charged Rs. 2 on every acre cultivated and nothing 
on uncultivated areas, and were now assessed at Ks. 2 per acre 
on the cultivated area and 6 pies on the uncultivated, as in the 
Wynaad. So popular at that time was this system, which allowed 
planters to extend their cultivation without extra charge during 
the thirty years for which the settlement was to be in force, that 
Mr. "Wapshare. who represented the Ouohterlony Trust, the 
biggest holders in the Valley, threatened that unless it was 
followed there he would appeal to the Secretary of State. 

The result of the survey and settlement was that the total 
area assessed increased (owing chiefly to the inclusion for the 
first time of uncultivated areas) by 212 per cent, and that the 
assessment itself was enhanced by 47 per cent, owing to over 
2,000 acres of cultivated land having previously escaped taxation 
and. to the uncultivated areaj which had formerly paid nothing, 
being now charged 6 pies per acre. 

The changes in revenue jurisdiction over the Nilgiris which 
have from time to time occurred have already been sketched in 
Chapter II above. It first became a separate charge in 1868, 
and a list of the Commissioners and Collectors who have presided 
over its destinies since that date is given in the Appendix to this 
chapter. 

While the district was under a Commissioner it was not split 
up into divisions as usual elsewhere, but the jurisdiction of the 
Commissioner and his Assistant were conterminous. In 1882, 
when the country was first made a (Jollectorate of the ordinary 
type, the Head Assistant Collector (who was, and still is, the only 
Divisional Officer) was posted to Ooonoor. In July of that year, 
however, the increasing importance of the gold-mining industry 
in the South-east Wynaad led Government to transfer his head- 
quarters temporarily to Devaia and give him charge of the 



LAND BEVENUE ADMINISl'BATION. 288 

Sudani* taluk. In 1883 lie moved to the Balearrea bungalow, a : HAP. SI. 
mile or so east of Pandalftr, and rented lor his office the suhstan- Exwtino 
tial building at the latter place which had "been originally erected ^J^bS?*" 
as a mining-store and is still known as ' the cutcherry bungalow ' ; hangements. 
but later in the year his oifiee was moved back into a rented 
building at Devala. In 1885 this latter place 5 and in 1889 
Pandalur again, was made his nominal head-quarters ; hut as a 
matter of fact, the gold-mining industry "being now dead, he spent 
most of his time in Qudalur, Naduvattani and Ootaeamund. He 
was given in 1885 the powers of a District Munsif which had 
before been oxercised hy the deputy tahsildar of Gudaliir. 

In 1891 G-overnment ordered his head-quarters to be trans- 
ferred to Grudalur, but, on the Collector's earnest representation 
that that place was not fit for the permanent residence of a Euro- 
pean, they said that) though his office must be in Gj-udalur he 
himself might live at Naduvattam. Two years later this order 
was withdrawn and the Head Assistant, who for some time had 
been m Ootaeamund on forest settlement work, was allowed to 
remain there permanently, going down periodically to Grudalur to 
dispose of miy suits which his position as District Munsif required 
him to try. 

In 1905 the growing importance of Ooonoor was forcibly 
"brought to the notice of Government and the Head Assistant was 
transferred to that place and given charge of the Ooonoor taluk ; 
the Collector took direct control of the other two taluks ; and (in 
1908) the deputy tahsildar of Gudalur again became a District 
Munsif- These arrangements still continue. 

Ooonoor taluk is in charge of a tahsildar and a stationary sub- 
magistrate ; Grudalur of a deputy tahsildar and sheristadar- 
magistrate ; and Ootaeanmud of a deputy tahsildar. The district 
has only one Deputy Collector, who is in charge of the treasury 
work at Ootacamund, No treasury, in the ordinary sense of the 
word, exists there ; the Government money is kept at the Ootaca- 
mund "branch of the Bank of Madras, where receipts and disburse- 
ments are made on the authority of the Deputy Collector. 

J adicial administration is dealt with m Chapter XIII. 



CHAP. XI, 



THE B1MHBIS. 

APPENDIX. 

Commissioners awl QoUentars of ike Nilgiris. 



Date of taking charge. 



1st August 18-tiS 



20th June 1872 , 



21st October 1876 
18th December 1876 
IStli March 1878 



iliBt May 1880 
27-th November 1881 



1st February 1882 
mil October 188a 
32nd March 1883 

9th February 18S4 
9th April IBS8 



Name. 



Commissioners. 

J.ttaes Wilkinson Breeks. Wrote The Pri- 
mitive Tribes and Monuments of the Wila- 
giris. Was Private Secretary to Sir 
William Denisoo, 1881-61. Died at 
Ootacanmnd on 6th June 1872 and is 
buried in St. Stephen's cemetery. The 
Breeks' Memorial School was founded in 
his memory. 
John Ronnie Cockerel!. Made the race- 
course on the Downs which is called after 
him ' Oockey's Course.' 
William Horatio Comyn. 
I Alexander McCalluin Webster. 
iBiehard Wellasle;- Barlow. Grandson of 
I Sir George Hilaro Barlow, n.njj., who 
; was Gtaveinoi-Goneral from 1806 to 1807 
, and Governor of Madras from then til 
1812, and whoso portrait by Watson 
hangs in the Banqueting Hall at Madras. 
Ho succeeded to the baronetcy in 1889, 
before he retired, and died in 1905. 
Norton Aylmer Honpetl. 
Eichard Wellesley Barlow. 



Collectors. 



Richard Wellesley Barlow. 

Arthur Johnston Breeks Atkinson. 

Francis Brandt. Puisne Judge ol the 
Madras High Court from 1884 to 1887. 

Leonard Robert Burrows. 

Charles Faliriner MaoCartie. Private Se- 
cretary to Lord Wenlock. Made a CLE. 
on 1st January 1896. Hetired in 1890 
and was lulled in aotiorj during the Boer 
War at Dreifontein on 10th March 1900 
when serving with fioberts' Horse. Ihe 
MaoCartie Ward at St. Bartholomew's 
Hospital was founded in his memory. 



LAUD E1VBOTB ADHIM1SIBATI0H. 

Commissioners and CoUaetars of the Plilgina — oont. 



285 



Bate of fcaking charge. 



1 6th December 1891 



19th January X89;-s 

22nd JDeeomboi- 1893 
1 6th April 1S95 



19th July 1895 
30th. November 1895 
9th April 1896 
16th August 1896 
1 7th November 1897 



J 21st February 1898 
i 27th May 1898 
i 12th Time 1898 
i 27th July IB98 
! 1st February 1899 
[lath Jane 1899 

i2ndAu«u8t 1899 
!3lst December 1900 

t 1st May 1901 
4thM;!v 1901 
1 10th May 1905 
: 8th July 1805 
i 8th. November 1905 



Name. 



Collectors —cent. 



of 



for 



John David Ree.s. Private Secretary to 
three successive Governors — Six M. ™ 
Grant Duff, Lord Connemara and Lord 
Werdoels. Government Translator ii 
Tamil, Telngu, Persian and Hindustani. 
Resident in Ti-avaneore and Cochin. 
Additional Member of Yiceroy's Council, 
1895-1900. Made a CLE. on 20th May 
1890. Retired in 1900. Author 
numerous books and articles in 
magazines. Bc-came Liberal M.P. 
Montgomery Di&triet in 1906. 'S 
Corner ' on the Downs is so called 
he broke his collar-bone there. 

Francis D'Atcv Osborne Wolfe-Murray. 
Ketired on an invalid pension m 1903, 

John David Bees, 

Henry Alexander &im. Private Secretary 
to Sir Arthur Havelock, 1897-1901. 
Made a CLE. on 1st January 1901, 
Additional Member o.£ the Vicerov'e 
Council, 1905-06. 

John David Bees, 

Edward Creswell Kawson. 

John David R-eea. 

James Henry Apperley Tremenheere. 

Harold A rthur Stuart. Privaie Secretary 
to Sir Arthur Havelock, 1896-97. Made 
a O.S.I. on 1st January 19U4 and the first 
Director of Criminal Intelligence iu April 
of the same year. Created K.O.Y.O. on 
19th March 1906. 

Donald William Garden Cowie. 

James Henry Apnerley Tremeuheere. 

Donald William Garden Gome. 

Alan Butter-worth. 

Charles James Weir- 
Sydney Gordon Roberts, Head Assistant 
Coll'ectoi' in charge, 

OharleH James Weir. 

Charles Mylne Mullaly, 

Chailes James Weir. 

Charles My lne Mullaly. 

Alexander Lidderdale Hamiay. 

Charles Myine Mullaly. 

Llewellyn E&dison Buckley. 



CHAP. 21. 

Appendix, 



886 



THE mLGlBIS. 



CHAPTER XII. 

SALT, ABKAHI AND MISCELLANEOUS REVBNUfi. 



CHAP. XII, 



AbkX&i a.- 
Opium:. 



To&df, 



Salt— Saltpetre. AkicXri a\o Opium — Toddy — Arrack— Foreign liquor — Beer- 
Opium mid hemp-drugs. Ixoomp-Tax. Stamps. 

The district produces no salt, and that which is consumed in it is 
imported It contains no salt-earth either; and tlie illicit manu- 
facture of earth-salt, which, in so many other areas has occasioned 
the authorities such trouble, has never caused any difficulties. The 
Salt (commission of 1876 reported that in those days the salt 
dealers at Ootacamund obtained black salt from Ponnani in 
Malabar district, and white salt from .Madras, but at present the 
salt consumed in the district is the lighter variety manufactured 
in the pans in the Bombay Presidency, 'which is brought to Calient 
by sea and thence by rail to Mettup^laiyam or Ooonoor and on 
by cart. Bait is sold wholesale at the pans by weight, but 
retailed in the bazaars by measure ; and the dealers therefore 
prefer the light Bombay salt to the heavier kinds made in the 
Madras pans, as it gives them a greater profit. The unusual 
cost of transport naturally makes salt rather dearer on the hills 
than in the plains, and in 1005-06 the price averaged Bs. 8-6-10 
per maund. 

No saltpetre is made in the district ; but considerable quanti- 
ties, both crude and 'refined, are imported for manuring' coffee 
estates {tea is less systematically manured) from the Goimbatore 
and Triohinopoly districts, where it is manufactured in rather a 
primitive way by the natives from the nitrous soils which are so 
common there. The imports of saltpetre from Calcutta which 
appear m the trade statistics consist of the twice-refined product 
which is used in the Cordite factory at Aravanktid. 

The abkari revenue consists of that derived from country spirit 
(arrack), foreign liquor, beer, and hemp-drugs. Statistics regard- 
ing certain of these items, and also concerning opium, will be 
found in the separate Appendix. 

Toddy-yielding palms do not grow on the plateau, and that 
beverage is neither made there nor imported, but beer takes its 
place. In the Wynaad, sago palms {Caryota urens) are scattered 
sporadically^ often in inaccessible places, but only a small number . 



Opium, 



SALT, ABKAhi A>3D MISOiaLASSiSGTJg SEVEKUS. 287 

of them are tapped and they are not taxed. Those growing in £HAP. XII. 
private gardens are most often utilized, but their owners seldom Assist awd 
think- of charging their neighbours anything if they happen to 
give them a drink and the arrack revenue is not affected. In 
1HT6 orders were issued prohibiting the drawing of toddy in this 
way without a license, but the Kurumbas and other jungle-tribes 
begged that these instructions mi^ht be rescinded, declaring that 
their gods were Tery displeased at no longer receiving offering's 
of strong drink at the periodical festivals, and were in conse- 
quence bringing down upon them all manner of misfortunes. 
The orders were withdrawn in the same year ; and at present 
the operation of all the provisions of the Madras Abkari Act 
which, relate to toddy lias been suspended within the district. 

Arrack, or country spirit, is supplied at present under what is An 
termed the contract distillery supply system, which was introduced 
in 1 901 -02. Under this the exclusive privilege of manufacture and 
supply of country spirits throughout the district is disposed of by 
tender , the successful tenderers paying an excise duty on spirit 
issaed from their distillery and selling it wholesale at rates fixed 
by GroYernment; while the right of retail sale at the sanctioned 
shops is disposed of annually, shop by shop, by auction. 

The tenderer at present is Eao Bahadur Tiravenkatasvami 
Mudaliyar, whose distillery is at Ooimbatore. He distils arrack 
from palmyra jaggery there and supplies a c warehouse ' at 
Ooonoor, and wholesale dep6ts have been established elsewhere in 
the district. Messrs. Bangayya Gravundaii & Go. own a distillery 
on the plateau itself, at Aravankad near Coonoor, but, as they 
found themselves unable to work the contract for the supply of 
the district jointly with the Ooimbatore firm, their distillery was 
closed in 1904. 

Drunkenness among the natives is more than usually notice- 
able in Ootajamund, especially upon - shandy day,' or Tuesday, 
when the big weekly market takes place. Shandy day is a kind 
of general holiday in the town, and domestic servants belonging- 
to the plains, who are ever under the temptation to fortify them- 
selves with strong waters against the unaccustomed cold and wet 
of the hill climate, take advantage of the fact ; the cartmen who 
have travelled up with merchandise from the low country, tired 
and ill-clad as they are. fall with even greater readiness ; while 
the Badagas and other inhabitants of the hills who have brought 
in vegetables and other produce to the market are unusually flush 
of cash then, and indulge in a luxury which is unattainable in 
.their distant villages or on the other six days of the week. The 



the mrmim. 



Abkaei A&'JJ 
Opiom. 



OHAP. XII, liquor shops lie along main thoroughfares used hy Jjkiropeans, and 
drunkenness is thus brought to their notice more than it would he 
in the ordinary town, iato the back "bazaars of which they "would 
seldom penetrate. The matter has therefore frequently attracted 
notice. In 1856 the Nilgai abkari contract was for the first tfmo 
sold separately from that of the rest of Ooimhatore district, the 
term being for five yearw and the price Es. 24,500 per annum for 
29 shops. In 1860 ; drunkenness among the domestic servants of 
Europeans at Ootaoamund -was so noticeable that the residents 
held a public meeting; iniluentiaUy attended, which adopted 
sundry resolutions asking Government to legislate aboat the 
matter. The Ootaoamund servants, it may he noted, have always, 
with, exceptions, 'been the offscourings of their class—no man 
caring to work in Ootaoamund, away from his relations and his 
beloved bazaar, who can get a good post on the more congenial 
plaias — and the then Commandant of the Nilgiris stated that half 
of them were either liberated or escaped convicts. The public 
meeting roundly declared that their ' insolence, fraud and drunken- 
ness* were ( mainly due to the working of the Abkari depart- 
ment' and had ' caused a state of matters at Ootacamund that was 
absolutely intolerable."'' The Board of Kevenue consulted the 
1 Improvement Committee ' and other residents of the town and 
in the end the number of arrack shops in the place (twelvej 
was reduced, the smaller beer shops were put down, and a person 
who, under cover of a license to sell ; good wholesome beer,' was 
retailing a highly spirituous liquor which he styled 4 Ginger wine ' 
was suppressed. 

Tn J.S92, upon the question again attracting attention, three 
more liquor shops near the market were closed ; while to stop the 
favourite practice of mixing beer with spirits, which makes a 
very heady beverage, country- brewed beer was no longer allowed 
to "be sold in foreign liquor taverns. 

The only part of the district into which smuggling of liquor 
from the low country ever appears to be attempted is the 
Ouchterlouy Valley. The three liquor shops there were closed 
in 1893-94 at the request of the planters and, since licit liquor 
is cheaper in the lilraad taluk of Malabar (which adjoins the 
Valley on the south) than hi the ISFilgiris and illicit distillation is 
not difficult on account of the wild nature of iihe country, risk of 
the smuggling of spirit exists. 

The supply of foreign liquor is controlled on much the usual 
system, lic&uses to vend wholesale or retail being 'issued on 
payment of the prescribed fees or, in the case of taverns, sold by 
auction. 



fforeign 
liquor. 



SALT, ABkXbI AND MISCELLANEOUS BEVE2TOE. 289 

One of the first things which struck the early visitors to the CHAP. XII. 
Nilgiri plateau was the possibility of! making there the beer Abkari and 

which: in those days was regarded almost as a necessary ot life ' 

and was imported all the way from England in bottle. They saw Beer, 
that barley was already cultivated in large quantities and that 
the climate was cool enough for brewing. As early, therefore, 
as 1826 ' extremely good beer ' was brewed on the Nilgiris from 
barley malt of native manufacture and English hops, 1 and in 
1827 the Gotacamund ' Station Committee '" urged Government 
to establish a brewery to supply malt liquor to the European 
troops. They said that the hill barley, in their opinion, would 
malt excellently and that hops would grow if once plants were 
introduced. Private efforts to grow them had failed, and the 
Oommittee begged Government to bring out some seedlings in 
the nest year's ships. Hops, it may here be noted, have never 
yet been successfully cultivated on the hills, and have to be 
imported ; and the better kinds of barley tried there i,see p. 167) 
have been found always to deteriorate rapidly, either owiug to 
defects in soil, climate or cultivation, or to hybridization with 
inferior local varieties. 

Kurgeon De Burgh Birch/s report of 1888 on the hills £ again 
urged that at least a trial of brewing should he made, and by 
1^39 3 an experimental brewery had been started on the plateau 
(by a Mr. Davis at Kalhatti), notwithstanding the severe handi- 
cap which the then cost of carriage imposed. What became of 
it is not clear. In 1 847 , in his survey report/ Major Ouchter- 
lony once more proposed the establishment of a Government 
brewery to supply the troops. He said he had himself brewed 
several casks of beer, without a single failure, from malt made 
from the local barley and hops and dried yeast imported from 
Brtgliind. Ho Government brewery was ever established, and 
the real pioneer in the industry was Mr. Samuel Honeywell, who 
(as early as 1857) started at Aravankad what is now the Castle 
Brewery. 

His beer was a potent compound, containing nearly as much 
alcohol as inferior arrack, and in 1872, partly to protect the 
more highly taxed arrack and toddy, Government ruled that it 
must not in future contain more than 8 per cent, of alcohol and 
imposed on it an excise duty of one anna per gallon, which was 

] Hong&'s Letters on the Sfcilgherries, IBS. 

* M.J.L.S., viii, 98. 

a Asiatic Journal, sxx, 295, 

* 3U.L.B., xr, 2Q S 



290 



THE 3ILGIBIB. 



CHAP, XII. the then customs tariff on imported beer and which is the rate 
Abk^ei and still in force. Mr. Honeywell wanted to open a "brewery in 

. " Madras as well, but the Board of Revenue did not believe it 

possible to make good malt on the plains, and was not inclined 
to encourage the production, under the name of beer, of in- 
toxicating liquors not made from malt. 

In 1872 Captain Albert Frend started the Llangollen Brewery 
near Mavliinand. Three years later, analyses and other inform- 
ation showed that barley malt and hops formed a very small 
item in the composition of the hill beers and a series of restric- 
tions and rales designed to improve their quality were introduced. 
In 1879 the existing £ Nilgiri Brewery ' was started in Ootaea- 
mund itself, just south of the race-course, by the Murree Brewery 
Co. Its buildings, plant and machinery were all expensive, 
and, perhaps for this reason, it had a chequered career, It 
passed to Messrs. Leishman & Co. and now belongs to the 
same Rangayya Uavumlan who owns the Castle Brewery and the 
distillery at Aravankad. It makes ( native ' beer for the supply 
of the local taverns, which, as has been said, take the place of 
the toddy-shops of the plains. fn 1883 the Llangollen Brewery 
was suppressed by the Board, its beer having been found to be 
very bad. In 1895 the Kose & Orown Brewery, at Yellanballi, 
near the Half Way House on the Ootacamund-Coonoor road, 
was opened by Muni Hue hanna. He sold it in .1900 to Mr. 0. 
Akilanda Aiyar; it was afterwards attached by the civil courts ; 
and it is now the property of a limited company and holds the 
contracts for the supply of the troops at "Wellington, Trichino- 
poly and elsewhere. For beer supplied to the taverns, the 
barley of the district is used, but for the higher grades ( ( English 
beer'} grain is imported all the way from Kewari in the Pan jab, 
whence the Mussooree and Nami Tal breweries are also supplied. 
The British Brewery, a very small concern, was opened in 
Ootaeamund in 1902 and survived for only four years. 

Formerly the opium poppy was commonly grown on the 
plateau by the Badagas, Sir F. Price says that for some years 
opium formed part of the tribute paid in kind by the hill people 
to Government ; and that some of it was sent to China, but was 
pronounced of inferior quality. The opium was made by scratch- 
ing the green poppy-heads and. collecting, after a day or two, 
the juice which had exuded, which had by then become gummy. 
This was generally done in the cold season, when the jnice was 
supposed to be thickest. The poppy-head itself was finally 
leaned of its seedSj cbied, and sold to the K!6tas, who potmded- 



Opram and 
heaip-drugs. 



salt, abkXhi and miscellaneous bevemub. 



291 



it well and made a decoction from it. The Badagas used always chap, xii 
to eat the opium and never smoked it. Metz frequently men- AbkIsi anb 
fcions the coniinoruiess of its use "by suicides — especially by Badaga Q pl " M - 
women the course of wliose love-aifairs did not run smoothly. 
* This cultivation has now, of course, been stopped ; and the 
poppy plant is never seen out&ide European gardens ; the drug is 
obtained from the Madras storehouse ; and its sale is governed 
by the usual rules and regulations. The ganja consumed is al- 
most all received from the Kamyambadi storehouse in North 
Arcot, where the crop grown on the Javadi hills is kept. 

Income-tax is levied and collected in the usual wanner, Income-Tax. 
Statistics of the receipts in recent years will be found in the sepa- 
rate Appendix. The circumstances of the Nilgiris are altogether 
exceptional, nearly a fourth of its people (a higher percentage 
than in any other district) living in its towns and a large pro- 
portion of these being well-to-do traders. Consequently, though, 
the total amount of tax collected is almost the smallest of any 
district in the Presidency, the incidence per head of the popula- 
tion is over six times the Presidency average and that per head 
of the tax-payers is more than half as much again as that 
average. 

For similar reasons the stamp revenue is also exceptional in Stamps. 
its nature, for, while the actual amount received is smaller than 
in any other district, the revenue from both, judicial and non- 
judicial stamps is higher per unit of the population than in any 
other. Statistics of the receipts in recent years appear in the 
separate Appendix. 



,THE NtLGLTKIS. 



CHAPTER X1IL 

AT3MINXSTBATI0N OF JUSTICE. 



chap, xin 

Oivil 

The existing 
ciTil courts. 



tion. 



Cbimihai, 

The present 
tribunals. 



Civil, J ust i r fci ~ Tbo existing orvul courts- -Regi-biaiioi'. ''rimikal Justice — 
The prpufnl. hrjlniuals — Grime— Coffee-scejiliug. Poj.k k — Foriaur &y steins 
-Tlie exifetiug foivc. .'Iai!. 1 - — T)i« District Juil— The Jiunjjjr-an prison— 
Sub-joilh. 

Thf. hist or v of the administration of civil and criminal justice 
in the district has been sufficiently sketched in Chapter IX above. 
The existing- civil courts are those of the District Judge of 
Coimbatore, who lias the usual ordinary and appellate jurisdiction 
throughout the district ; tbe Bub-Judge at Ootacanmnd, who has 
jurisdiction over the Coonoor and Ootacamund taluks and in cases 
above Bs. 2/)00 in value arising in G-udalur, and also exercises 
small cause powers ; the District Munsif (who is the deputy 
tahsiidar) o£ G-udalur, who tries suits valued at Ks. 2,500 and 
under arising in that taluk and appeals from whom go to the 
Hub- Judge : and the village immsifs (headmen), who rarely try 
eases above B.s, 20 in value. Village bench courts constituted 
under Act I of 1889 also sit at Ootacamund and Coonoor and 
liave jurisdiction over certain specified villages in the neighbour- 
hood of those towns. 

The Nilgiris was first created a registration district in 1869. 
a District Begistrar being then appointed. A proposal to 
re- amalgamate it with Coimbatore was negatived by Government 
in 1887. Besides the District Registrar at Ootacamund. there 
are now sub-registrars at Coonoor and G-udalur, the latter being 
the taluk slieristadar. 

The criminal court* having jurisdiction in the district are 
those of the Sessions Judge of Coimbatore^ who exercises the 
usual powers ; the District Magistrate, who is also Additional 
Sessions 3 udge ; the H ead Assistant at Coonoor, the Treasury 
Deputy Collector at Ootacaraund and the Sub-Jadgo, who are 
ail first-class magistrates ; the tahsiidar of Coonoor,, tlio deputy 
tansHdars of Ootacamund and Gidalur, the stationary sub-magis- 
trate at Coonoor and the taluk sberistadar of G-MaKir, who have 
second or third class powers ; the bench, of magistrates at Ootaca- 
mund established in 1898 [former bench courts at Coonoor 
(1875-76), K6fcagiri (1878-94) and Gudalur (1878-89) have , all * 



ADMtKISTlUTION OF .ItTSTIGE. 293 

"been abolished] ; the cantonment magistrate at Wellington, whose OFfAP. XUI, 
office has more than, once been abolished and re-established ; the C luminal 
Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent of the Aravanload Jc ™^ E - 
Oordite factory, who. as the factory is not included in the 
Wellington cantonment, have powers to try offences under the 
Towiim Nuisances Act ; and the village magistrates, less than half 
a dozen of whom generally use their powers in any year. 

There is nothing unusual about these courts unless it ho that 
the appeals to the District Magistrate from the orders of the 
subordinate tribunals are proportionately more numerous than 
in any other district in the Presidency. 

Outside the two municipal towns, crime is light; but within Crime, 
them, the number of offences committed is sufficient to bring the 
Nilgiris among the districts in which the proportion of offences 
to population is highest. Grave crime, such as daooity or robbery, 
is however very rare in any part of the district. The murders of 
'Kurumbas due to their supposed powers of black magic which have 
occurred from time to time have been referred to on p. 155. In 
the Wynaad the Pauiyans and Kurumbas commit most of the small 
amount of crime which is perpetrated there. A Wynaad house is 
usually waited with bamboo wattle and daub, and roofed with 
thatch, and house-breaking is consequently a. temptingly simple 
matter. 

An offence which has attracted more attention in the district Ooffac-steal- 
than any other is coffee-stealing. In 1877 the Wynaad planters in S- 
brought its prevalence to the notice of Government, declaring 
that it had become the regular occupation of a section of the 
population ; that wholesale stripping of the trees went on at 
niglit ; that almost every wayside bazaar and arrack-shop keeper 
was a receiver of the stolen berries, growing a few trees as a blind ; 
and that pulped coffee on the way down to the curing-works on 
the coast was stolen in great quantities, the loss in weight being 
made up, to prevent detection, by watering the bags or by insert- 
ing rubbishing coffee in the place of that abstracted. They prayed 
that a special law, similar to the Ceylon Ordinance of 1874, might 
bo introduced to protect them, seeing that coffee was so portable. 
so valuable and so difficult to identify. 

In the next year an Act (VI H of 1878) was accordingly 
passed to check this form of crime. Briefly stated, its provisions 
made it unlawful to purchase any coffee from any labourer on a 
coffee-estate, or to buy from others employed on sucli properties 
or from carriers of coffee unless the transaction was duly recorded 
in* a prescribed register open to inspection, by the police and 



294 



THE HELGIBIff. 



OHAP. XIII. magistracy ; rendered labourers and maistries found in posses- 
Cbuiikai. s i 0I1 f freshly -gathered coffee liable to punishment unless they 
could satisfactorily explain how they obtained it ; required all 
transport of coffee to "be covered by the written permission of the 
owner or Jus agent ; and made the gathering, moving, loading or 
unloading o£ coffee on any estate between sunset and sunrise an 
offence. 

The Act was not a success and the stealing went merrily on. 
At the beginning of the picking season Mappillas used to coiiip 
up from Malabar and squat in temporary huts for no other 
purpose than to receive the stolen crop ; and the native owners 
of small coffee-gardens also entered the lucrative business, 
adding to their own crop the coffee filched from their European 
neighbours. Sometimes a half -cultivated patch of coffee was 
found to be exporting crop six times as heavy per acre as that 
which carefully-tended estates could produce. In 1894 efforts 
were made in the Malabar Wyuaad to checkmate this latter class 
of receivers by counting all the trees in all the gardens, 
entering the results in a register, noting the amounts gathered in 
each garden at thr> crop season, and seeing that small plots no 
longer pretended to have produced tons whereas in reality they 
only grew bushels. The markets were also watched to stop the 
bartering of stolen coffee for other commodities, and the roads 
were patrolled to prevent its clandestine removal and the thefts 
during transit from the estates to the coast agents. These 
steps effected much good ; but it was evident that the Act of 
1878 needed amendment and this was eventually effected by Act 
II of 1900, which added to it fresh provisions requiring persons 
in charge of coffee-estates who sold., exchanged or delivered 
coffee, to keep registers detailing the transactions ; obliging all 
such persons to keep accounts of their crop ; making the unex- 
plained possession of parchment or cherry-dried coSee, as well 
as of freshly-gathered berry, punishable ; and providing for the 
issue of detailed rules to carry out the purposes of the Act. 
Fouck. Until the advent of the British there appear to have been no 

Former police in the district. In most other districts crime was kept in 

systems. check by the well-known ledval system^ under which lidvcdgdrs 

(watchmen) were appointed to each village or group of villages ; 
were controlled by menkdvdy&rs (head watchmen), often the 
petty local chieftains, who held control over perhaps half a taluk ; 
and were required either to detect thefts and robberies or to make 
good from their own pockets any property lost. These village 
and head watchmen were alike remunerated by grants of land 
and annual fees in kind from the villagers j and when the British 



ADMINISTKATIGST 02 JUSTICE. 295 

occupied the country" the latter were dispensed witli and their chap. XIII. 
grants and fees resumed, while the former were allowed to retain Police. 
their Jjoats and emoluments under the name of ialaiydris and were 
eventually formed into the existing village police. 

This system seems never to have prevailed in the Nilgiris — • 
where, indeed, until the recent settlement there were no regular 
village establishments at all — and to this day th e district possesses 
no real village police, the duties of the tdndalgdri wTio were 
appointed at the settlement being rather to collect the revenue 
than to suppress crime. 

The village monigars {mamyal'drans) and sub-monigars who 
were in office before the settlement, and the number of: whose 
posts was largely increased at the revision of village establish- 
ments then made, were worse than useless in checking lawless- 
ness. Mr. Grigg writes i the vaguest notion of their duties as 
village magistrate or police officer prevails among the headmen. 
So far from their understanding that it is their duty to repress 
such ciime, they seem to regard it almost as a sacred duty not 
only to countenance and shield the wrong-doers, but even to 
aid m the perpetration.' In the villages, for which alone they 
were responsible, crime, however, has always been light. 

In the towns, on the other hand, the miscellaneous immigrant 
population, formed as it has always been of all sorts and condi- 
tions of castes, races and tongues, has ever needed a strong- 
hand over it, and as early as 1 828 a small body of military police 
seems to have been established in Ootacauiund under the orders 
of the military Commandant then appointed to the charge of the 
place. 

In 1847 1 these men were under the immediate orders of the 
tahsildar subject to the general control of the military Joint 
Magistrate, and consisted of a kotwai on Rs. 4& per mensem, five 
daffadars and 75 peons ; but three of the daffadars and Y6 of the 
peons were called sibbandis,, acted as a kind of rural police and 
were employed for part of the year in collecting the revenue, and 
six more of the peons were exclusively engaged in protecting 
the forests round Ootacamond from the depredations of wood- 
cutters. The kotwai had a : choultry ' to which was attached a 
lock-up, 2 

In 1859, as has already (p. 121) been seen, the post of Oom- 
mandant was abolished, and the military police were eventually 
placed under the orders of the civil authorities in accordance 

1 See Onehterlony's survey report, 69, E Pharonh's (3-asetieer, 488, 



396 



THE MLGIB1S. 



The existing 

force. 



.Tails. 
The 
District 
Hail. 



O ilaotunnnrt 

[Caudal. 

Uoonoor. 

Wflliug'ion. 

Kotag'iri . 

Loveclalo. 

Kalhatti. 



1'ii.ikara. 

Ka>di!?aUrUn. 

Hasmigutli. 

GfiHalfiv. 

DSvila. 

Neilakottru. 

Oli^raxuhatli, 



05IAP. xitt with the Police Act XXIV of that year. The Superintendent of 
Police. Police in Coimbatore had general charge of the new force, and 
~~~ the immediate control of it was in the hands first of an Assistant 
Superintendent stationed at Gotaeamundj later of a Chief Inspec- 
tor, and finally oi an Assistant Superintendent again. 

In accordance with the recommendation of the Police Com- 
mission, the Secretary of State in 
1906 ordered that the district 
should have a Superintendent of 
its own ; and the change was 
introduced at the end of that 
year, The police force now con- 
sists of U>0 man distributed among the fourteen stations shown 
in the margin and supervised "by three inspectors. 

In the early days the only jail in the district seems to have 
been the Icotwal's lock-up already mentioned. Roads and other 
public works, however, were largely canned out by the labour of 
convicts brought up from the plains, and these people were 
confined at night in sheds attached to the old (Jonvalescent Depot 
which (see p. 120") had been transferred to Southdowns in 1832 
and abolished in 1834 aud the buildings of which had long 
remained unoccupied, 'ihis consequently was commonly called 
= the jail.' l It was subsequently utilized as a court-house for 
the Principal Sadr Amin appointed in 1855, and in 1-85'i was 
converted into a district jail under the charge, at first, of that 
officer and, later, of the military Joint Magistrate. It contained 
accommodation for 72 male and ten female convicts, three 
under-trial prisoners and six civil, debtors, and included a 
hospital capable of holding 26. Attached to it was also a 
temporary shed with a corrugated iron roof which was divided 
into three wards capable of holding 88 men in all and was used 
for short-terra prisoners. For years the convicts were chiefly 
employed oa roads ;tnd other public works in the station and 
when, their numbers were insufficient to keep the working gang- 
up to a strength of 100, men were dratted to this prison from 
the jails on the plains to m.ake u)> the deficiency. lit August 
1887 the jail was abolished and its inmates transferred to 
Ooimbatore. "Hie buildings are now utilized for the offices of 
tlie Inspector-General of Prisons, the deputy tahsiidar and the 
forest ranger, aa a sub-jail and as residences for Government 
c larks. 



■ Quctoerlcmy'ti survey t-sporL, 83 ; Pharoah's Gazetteer, 488, 



ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE, 297 

The old European prison adjoining this jail was opened in OHAF. Still. 
1862 for the accommodation of ISuropeam sentenced in all parts Jails. 
of India to long terms, whether by the ordinary tribunals or by t^ e " ' 
courts-martial. It would hold 86 persons. When accommoda- European 
tiosi suitable for Europeans began in course of time to be erected J" 1503 - 
in other provinces, the number of convicts sent from, thence to 
Ootacamund fell off, and the jail was used for short- term prisoners 
and Eurasians. The convicts in it were never employed outside 
the walls, but were kept at work on weaving, making coir 
matting, shoe-making and so on, and in keeping their premises 
and clothing in repair, 

In 1883 Sir Frederick (now Earl) Roberts, then Commander-in- 
Chief, stopped the sending of persons convicted by courts-martial 
to the jail, considering it desirable that they should undergo their 
sentences in military prisons ; and in 1 886 the inmates numbered 
only six. Government considered it wasteful to maintain an 
expensive staff to look after so few people, and in 1887 reduced 
the establishment to a strength sufficient to control 18 prisoner-Sj 
abolished the post of Superintendent, placing the institution 
under the Medical Officer, and turned the lower storey of the 
"building into a sub-jail. 

In 1850 the Committee appointed by the Governor- Gf-eneral 
to enquire into jail administration visited the prison. They found 
that it contained only seven Europeans, of whom four had been 
brought all the way from the Punjab, and that the establishment 
then maintained cost no less than Es. 583 per prisoner per annum. 
They declared that the jails iu the plains of the different provinces 
contained quarters in which European prisoners could be ' as com- 
fortable as the majority of European subalterns living in the same 
localities nnd far more comfortable than the large proportion of 
poor whites and Eurasians can afford ' and therefore recommended 
the abolition of the institution. Their suggestion was carried into 
effect from 31st March 1891 and the buildings are now asedas 
the offices of the Director of Cinchona Plantations, the Govern- 
ment Epigrajihist and the District Registrar, and as-s residences 
for clerks. In 1906 the old exercise-yard of the prison was con- 
verted into the Armoury and Drill Hall of the Mlgiri Yolunteei 
Rifles. This is now practically the only hall available for public 
entertainments in Ootacamund; and where the prisoners once 
took their dreary enforced walks, dances, dramatic performances 
and fancy fetes are now held. 

The only prisons m the district at present are the three Sub-jails, 
*nb-jails at Ootacamand, Ooonoor and GHidalfir. 



THE KILGIEIS. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT. 



The Dis-raics Board— lis finances. Wellington Cantonment. Coonoos 
Municipality — Drainage — Wa^er-supply. Ootacamukd Municipality — lis 
uai'ly efforts— The market — Drainage— Water-supply-— T he Marlimaiid supply 
— The Dodabetta reservoir — The Kodapamand reservoir — The Tiger Hill 
reservoir — Cliooking of overcrowding - . 

CHAP. XIY. Outside the limits of the Wellington cantonment and the two 
The District municipalities of Ootacamund and Coonoor referred to below, 
0A - BD ' local affairs in the NUgiris are administered by the District 
Board. None of the taluk boards or union, pancbiyats common 
in other districts exist, the rural population being too backward ; 
and consequently the District Board consists entirely of members 
appointed by Government and includes none of the nominees of 
taluk boards who sit on similar bodies elsewhere. 
TtB finances. Though the incidenoe of local fund taxation in the Nilgiris 

per head of the population is nearly three times as high as in the 
Presidency as a whole, the District Board has always been in a 
chrome condition of impecuniosity. Though the land-cess, the 
mainstay of the finances of the corresponding bodies in the 
plains, is levied on the plateau and in the Quchterlony Valley at 
two annas in every rupee of the land assessment, or double the 
rates usual elsewhere in the Presidency, yet it only brings in 
about Es. 14,000 annually ; tolls are collected at the maximum 
permissible rates at as many as fifteen gates and yearly contri- 
bute about Rs, 34,000 to the Board's coffers, but this does not 
cover even one half of the annual expenditure on roads ; and all 
the other sources of income put together bring in less than 
B.s. 10,000 a year. On the other side of the account, the great 
length of gh&t and other roads which the Board has to keep in 
order eats up as much as lis. 3 .20,000 a year ; for their alignment 
along steep slopes, the heavy rainfall and tlie large traffic which 
some of them carry make their maintenance a most expensive 
business Consequently the Government, in addition to keeping 
up the ghat road from KallaV to Qotacaumnd (to help pay for 
which, however, they take one-third of the tolls collected 
thereon) have annually to contribute about a lakh of rupees to 
keep the Board from insolvency. 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT. 



299 



Wellikgtok 
Oahtonmjsni, 



Cookook 

TJkLVSr. 



Particulars of the roads, hospitals and dispensaries, and CHAP. 'XIV 
schools kept up by the Board have been given, in Chapters VII, The Disteic* 
IX W X respectively. BoAKD - 

Wellington, canto niuenc, which does not include the Cordite 
factory, is administered by a military cantonment- committee. 
The sanitary provisions of the Cantonment Code have also been 
extended to an adjoining area which reaches as far as the Half 
Way House on the road to Ootacamund. Within the canton- 
ment proper, taxes on professions, vehicles and animals, a tax: at 
7| per cent on the annual value of buildings and a water tax at 
4-} per cent, of the annual value of building's and lands are col- 
lected cinder the combined operation of the Cantonments and 
District Municipalities Acts. 

Goonoor town, the main features of which are mentioned on 
pp. 817-324 below, was constituted a municipality on 1 st Novem- 
ber 1866 under the then municipal enactment, the Towns Improve™ 
ment A.ct of 1865. The proposal had not met with approval 
locally. One objector said c the native population does not 
exceed 1,400 inhabitants, amongst whom I do not suppose that 
six men of substance exist. There are 39 houses for Europeans ; 
but, as many of them are occupied by strangers, the provisions of 
the Act, if introdncedj would fall heavily on/their owners.' It had 
been suggested that Wellington and Ooonoor might together be 
formed into one municipality ; but the opposition combated this 
idea also, arguing that the heavy cost of the police in Wellington 
cantonment (in those days municipalities had to contribute to 
the upkeep of the police within their limits) would hamper the 
council and that ( it would hardly be fair to tex the Coonoor 
people for police who are kept chiefly to look after camp followers 
and riotous soldiers.' Grovemment, however, waved aside all 
objections and made the place a municipality on the ground that 
it was already ' an important hill sanitarium/ The first council 
was composed entirely of Europeans, there being no natives 
sufficiently qualified. 

The present council includes two natives among its twelve 
members. Xn 1871 it was given the powor of electing its own. 
vice-president, and this privilege was continued in the case of the 
chairman appointed under the existing Municipal Act of 1 884. 
The incidence of the taxation in the town per head of the popu- 
lation is Bs. 3-2-2, which; though nearly treble the average for 
the Madras municipalities as a whole, is lower than in either 
Ootacamund. or Kodai&anal, the other two ! hill municipalities ' of 
the Presidency, A bill designed to provide further sources ol 



sDo 



TEE NILGIRIS. 



Monioi- 

PAtlTY. 



Drainage. 



CHAP. SIT. taxation in these three areas (and also to secure the better re- 
Coonoob gulation of "building and improved supervision over articles of 
food and drink) has very recently been passed into law. * 

The chief permanent improvements effected by the OoonQor 
council during the forty years of its existence have been the 
extension of the market, which now brings m an annual revenue 
of Rs. 20,000 (more than that produced by any municipal 
market except those at Tricliinopoly aud Ootacamund), and the 
execution of schemes of drainage and water-supply. 

After years of discussion — the Government constantly 
pressing the municipality to act and the council as persistently 
pleading its impecmiiosity — the first plans and estimates for a 
drainage scheme were prepared in 1885 by the municipal over- 
seer. They divided the town into the two separate areas of 
Bazaar Hill and Mission Hill, which were treated separately, and 
provided for open drains discharging iufco two covered sewers, one 
for each of the two hills, which both led into, an iron pipe dis- 
charging into the Ooonoor river just below the masonry bridge 
over it at the edge of the gMt near the present railway-station. 
The estimates were slightly revised (and increased) by the Sani- 
tary Engineer and were sanctioned m 1891. They then amounted 
to Rs. 42,500, of which Government made the council a present 
of Rs. 30,000 and lent the remainder at 4'^ per cent, on condition 
that it was repaid in twenty years. 

The work was begun in August J 891 and finished by the end 
of the next year. The street drains are semi-oval and either of 
concrete laid in cement or of stoneware obtained from Messrs. 
Burn & Co. of Calcutta. The intercepting and outlet sewers are 
stoneware pipes made by the same firm and the outfall down the 
Ooonoor river is a 12-incbiron pipe, bolted to the rock in the bed 
of the stream and discharging at a point where wafcer h 
flowing. The actual cost of the scheme was Rs. <U,5&9, 

The first municipal effort to better the water-supply of any 
part of Ooonoor was the expenditure, in 1 671, of Rs. 2,150 to 
improve a channel which, ran from a spring near the Milk Village 
on the old road to Ooty on the western limit of the municipality 
(see the map at p. 318) to "VVoodcote and the three neighbouring 
houses called Balaclava, Alma and Inkerman. The channel had 
originally been cut l without permission sought or granted ' by 
Mr. bascelles to supply Woodcote, which he had built in 1847, 
and the work done in 1871 consisted in improving its alignment 
and extending its benefits. m 



Water- 



MtlNICE- 
PALITT. 



LOCAL SELP-QOTSESM3EHT, 301 

The houses on tlic oilier side of the valley were at this time CHAP XiY. 
supplied by open channels which were polluted during' their course Ooowooa 
rn every possible way ; and correspondence as to the best method 
of improving matters and raising the necessary funds went on for 
years without tangible result. 

At length in 1888, on the Surgeon- General reporting in forci- 
ble language on the state of affairs, 'investigations ^erc set on 
foot ; and they were completed by the Sanitary Engineer in 1891. 
This officer's scheme consisted in leading an existing channel — 
which ran from the village of Yeddapalli (near the Kotagiri road) 
past 'Woodhouselee and Sim's Park and already supplied moat of 
the place — to settling tanks and a service reservoir on the hill 
between the Park and the race-course, and distributing it thence 
throughout the town "by pipes. The estimate was Its. 80,000. 

The channel in question, however, runs through cinchona and 
tea estates ; and to preserve it from pollution at such points it 
was found that expensive additional works would be necessary 
which would bring the cost to Bs. 1,09,800. In 189% therefore, 
estimates were prepared for an alternative scheme which utilized 
the purer and larger stream one of the two branches of which fed 
the Wellington cantonment. They amounted to Bs, 1.13,800, 
and provided for a low dam across the stream, a three-inch pipe 
thence to a covered service reservoir holding two days - * supply and 
commanding the town, and much the same distribution arrange- 
ments as before. The Government offered to lend the council the 
money required at 4-^ per cent, repayable in twenty years, "but 
that body declared ita inability to find funds to pay the interest, 
and proposed instead to improve the Yeddapalli supply piece- 
meal. The sanitary advisers to Government would not hear of 
this latter suggestion, hut made certain alterations in the 
"Wellington stream scheme which reduced its cost to Bs. 99,200. 

Government then sanctioned this scheme, granted Bs. 50,000 
of tlie amount required to carry it out, and directed the council 
to raise the "balance by a loan in the open market and to enhance 
its water and drainage tax by 2£ per cent, to provide funds for 
the interest thereon. 

•The project was begun "by the Public Works department j but 
it was speedily discovered that the discharge of the stream which 
was trie source of the supply had bean greatly overestimated and 
in reality was "barely enough for half of the town. It was 
accordingly suggested that the branch from which Wellington, 
was supplied, which was more than sufficient for the needs of 
Ike cantonment, should, he also drawn upon and that a joint 



thb srtLoxsis. 



CHAP. XIV. 
Coonoob 

MUNICI- 
PALITY. 



OOTACi.KUKI> 

MoKicr- 

PADITY. 



Its early ^ 

effort*. 



scheme should be prepared for "both places. This involved 
correspondence with the military authorities. After much dis- 
cussion the joint scheme was abandoned, but the sanction or' the 
Government of India -was accorded to the utilization hy the 
Coouoor council of part of the branch -which supplied Wellington. 

In 1903 a slightly revised scheme was prepared accordingly. 
The reservoir was placed on Gray's Hill at Ooonoor, and this 
and other alterations brought the total cost to Es. 1,16^740. 
Unforeseen contingencies eventually raised the figure to 
Us. 1,28,200; and in addition further extensions of the pipe 
lines proposed by the Collector asd the chairman cost another 
Bs. 82,000 and the supply of the Milk and Ohueklers 5 Villages 
Es. 1-1,000 more. These items and the cost of reserving the 
catchment area made the total excess as much as Us. 60,800, 
which was lent to the council hy Government. 

The head-works of this scheme were completed early in 1905 
and were opened by Lord Ampthill in April, A year later the 
distribution system was also finished and the project is now in 
operation. 

Ootacamund, the genera! appearance and situation, of which 
are referred to on pp. 357-363 below, was first constituted, a munici- 
pality, under the Act X of 1865 above mentioned, in November 
1866. Up to that time the few efforts which had been made to 
keep it in a sanitary state had been, of the most desultory and 
inadequate description. Sir Frederick Price, whose book gives 
an account of the matter, shows that Colonel Crewe, when 
Commandant of the Kilgiris (1831-36), levied a small 'voluntary' 
tax from the bazaarmen for the upkeep of half a dozen sweepers 
to attend to the streets of the main bazaar ; that this arrangement 
(though the number of the sweepers was at some periods rather 
larger) continued to be the only sanitary measure taken until the 
municipality was constituted; that sach latrines as existed were 
built on. the margin of the lake or over its supply channel ; that 
as early as 1860 the lake was declared by the Director- General 
of the Medical department to be the ' universal cesspool ' of the 
place ; that the Sanitary Commissioner described it in the fol- 
lowing year as ! an unbearable niass of uncle ann ess, polluting the 
atmosphere ' ; and that in 1866 the conservancy of the town was 
condemned as being ' as bad as could be '. 

The council constituted in that year consisted of thirteen 
'municipal commissioners ' with the Collector of Ooimbstore as 
president and the Special Assistant Collector as honorary 
secretary. It took over the existing conservancy plant ; but this 



LOOAL SBUP-GOTEBRKBHT. 30S 

consisted, say the records, merely of a few old wheelbarrows and CHAP. XIV, 
of two bullocks one of which was unfit for work. Qotacamuhd 

The net incomu available for roads and conservancy was at pa™?? 1 " 

first Rs. 18.500, but the council does not appear to have acted 

with the energy proverbially expected of new brooms, for the 
Medical Officer's report on the state of the conservancy and 
roads in 1867 was perhaps the moat strong-] y-worded of the 
many indignant protests on these matters which had been 
penned. It is worthy of note that even in those days the 
Australian wattle had become a serious nuisance and that the 
sanitary esperta bad complained of it as far back as 1859. 

In 1868 enteric fever, up to then unknown in Ootacamund. 
was declared to be endemic in the station; public confidence in 
the health of the place was shaken and public opinion regarding 
the need of action aroused; and tbe rates of the tases were 
enhanced so as to bring up the net income to about Rs. 22,000. 
Groverarnent offered the council a grant of Its. 20,000 and a 
loan of another Rs. 40,000 to enable them to put their house 
in order and carry out sundry improvement schemes which had 
been outlined, but the Commissioners declared with emphasis 
that house property in the town was unable to bear the extra 
2£ per cent, taxation which the repayment of the loan would have 
required. Eventually Government lent them Es. 20,000 (of 
which half was afterwards treated as a free grant) and this was 
mainly expended on improvements in the main bazaar and in the 
erection of latrines — somewhat to the disgust of the European 
tax-payers, who complained that they had derived no sort of 
benefit from it. 

Tbe council suggested at this time that the whole of the 
main bazaar should be moved to Sandal ; and though the amount 
of compensation involved was estimated, even then, at between 
<£25 S G0O and £30,000, many thousands of rupees would have 
been saved if this scheme had been carried out. Chronic want 
of fundSj however, prevented any heroic measures ; and the 
council declined to tax themselves further, claiming that Grovern- 
ment should help them as it had assisted the District Board and 
declaring that though they were quite ready to pay for their own 
conservancy they did ' feel, it hard that they should be required to 
keep up extensive roads chiefly for the comfort and delectation 
of casual visitors. ? The local paper used to refer to the municipal 
commissioners as c the municipal omissioners ' and Lord Napier 
was so little pleased, with their attitude that he suggested the 
introduction of a bill to abolish tjjem and vest their powers in 
the Commissioner of the JSfilgiris. 



304. THE NXLGIRTS, 

OSAp. xiy. In 1869-70, however, some improvements were effected (not- 

OoxACiMDMD ably the "beginnings of the reclamation of the swamp at the upper 

jamtt" &n ^ °^ *^e ^ a ^ e ) a nd the language of the medioal officers 3 reports 

grew milder. The market was extended ; a beef slaughter-house 

was erected ; and the main bazaar and its roads were sloped to pre- 
vent storm- water Prom stagnating on them. In 1871 this last area 
was farther provided with some drains indifferently paved with 
granite ; in J 872 poudrette manufacture was started in the middle 
o£ both Ootacamund and ICimdal, an incinerator was erected 
on an equally ineligible site and. for the first time, small-pox 
appeared with virulence. In 1873 convicts were employed on 
the reclamation of: part of the borders of the lake ; in 1874 the 
mutton-butchers were given a room in which to keep their meat, 
which up to then they had been wont to store in the kitchens 
and bedrooms of their own houses ; and the bazaar drains were 
patched; and in 1876 the improvement of the conservancy of 
the latrines engaged attention and the poudrette factory was 
removed outside the town. 

None of these steps, however, went to the root of matters, 
and in 1877 cholera became established for the first time in the 
place and small-pox was epidemic. Government then directed 
the Surgeon- General, the Sanitary Commissioner and the Com- 
missioner of the Nilgiris to form themselves into a committee to 
repoi't on the sanitary condition of the place and to sug 
methods of improving it. Their report (which covered 200 ] 
of printed foolscap — cacoeihes seribandi seems to have been 
endemic among the medical officers of those times) gave many 
unpleasant details regarding the existing condition of the town ; 
proposed that the municipality should be abolished and its dirties 
entrusted to one capable officer; revived the question of the 
removal of the main bazaar to Kandal ; and dealt with schemes 
of drainage and water-supply. Bat it was not unanimous and 
it contained few definite recommendations ; and consequently it 
led to little. 

Three years after it was sent in. Government appointed 
another and larger committee, which included engineering as 
well as sanitary experts and also some of the more prominent 
non-ofiicial ratepayers, to consider the questions of extending 
the market and improving the drainage and water-supply (whioh 
three things were far more emergent than any others) and the 
submission of this body's report was followed by the first really 
active effort in these matters. 



LOCAL SELF-GGVBBNMENT. 



305 



Changes in. the system of administration also facilitated 
Up to 1882 the chief executive officer of the council 
had o*een the Special Assistant Collector and his successor the 
Assistant Commissioner, "both of whom had their hands fall of 
other -work. In that year the latter's place was taken hj a 
vice-president chosen from among- the councillors; in 1884, when 
the existing Municipal Act was passed, a paid secretary was 
appointed ; in 1895 a salaried chairman was put in executive 
charge ; in 1897 an amending Act gave the council enhanced 
powers of taxation ; in 1899 an Engineer on a salary of Es. 700 
was made chairman, an arrangement which still continues : and 
now the recent Hill Municipalities Act will further increase the 
revenue and powers of the council. This body's income is at 
present nearly two lakhs, or ten times what it was 30 years ago ; 
"but this is still insufficient for its daily increasing needs. Since 
1884 it has had to borrow 44 lakhs (half in the open market and 
half from Government) and in the last ten years it has received 
grants from Government amounting to Es. 3,87.000 besides a 
special contribution of lis. 73,000 towards the new drainage 
scheme referred to below, 

It remains to sketch shortly the history of the market and of 
the drainage and water-supply schemes. Much fuller details will 
be found in Sir Frederick Price's book, which has been f^.ely 
indented upon. 

The first market was built in 1847-48 at the personal sug-ges- ■ 
tion of the Marquis of Tweeddale and cost Es. 5,800. It still 
forms part of the rectangular block in the centre of the present 
enclosure. Fees were first collected in 1864 and the proceeds 
applied to the improvement of the building. In 1867-68 two 
small wing a were added; but it was not until 1885 that any 
notable extensions were made. In that year two large buildings, 
oxie of which is now used for grain and the other as the meat 
market, were built at a cost of fis. 61,000. Eight years later 
the existing stalls for European vegetables, fruit, poultry, eggs 
and fish, and the rooms for storing meat were completed at an 
outlay oE Es, 22,000 ; and in 1903-01 corrugated iron sheds for 
the sale of native vegetables, costing Km. 4,800, and iron palings 
all* round the enclosure, value Us. 0,600, were erected. The 
revenue derived from the fees collected is now larger than that 
of any municipal market in the Presidency except Trichinopoly ; 
and c shandy day ' (Tuesday) is a crowded holiday during which 
natives in the town can with difficulty be prevailed upon to do 
any work. In the old leisurely days all public offices used 



CHAP. XIV. 

OOTAGAMUND 
MlTHICI- 
FALI1Y. 



306 



THE3 KLLGIRIS 



MONIOI- 
PALITT. 



Drainage, 



CHAP. XIV, actually to be closed at uoon on market day so that the clerks 
Oma.iamukd might he able to purchase their supplies for the ensuing week. 

The first definite action towards the draining- of any pSrt of 
Ootaoamund was the deputation, in 1807, of Major Tullochj 
B.E., who had made a special study of such subjects, to devise 
a scheme for the main bazaar, He proposed to lay a,n egg-shaped 
"brick sewer along the margin of the lake from the point where 
the supply stream ran into it down to the outfall. This was to 
carry sewage only, and not storm- water, and was estimated to 
cost Rs. 74,000. House and street drains were not provided for 
or dpsigned. Captain Tulloah declaring them a simple matter. 
Government decided that the cost of the sewer was too high, 
and nothing was done. 

In 1870-7!, aa already mentioned, the streets in the, bazaar 
were properly sloped and paved drains were provided for them, 
the work being part of a kind of general scheme prepared by 
Major Farewell, the District Engineer. In 1879 Major Morant, 
BJ3., also District Engineer, drew up a more complete project 
providing for open surface drains to carry both sewage and 
storm-water into the lake and estimated to cost Rs. 32,900. In 
1881 Mr. G'Shaughneasy, then Local Fund Engineer, elaborated 
this and prepared four detailed estimates which ranged from 
B.s. 57,2U0 to Us. 86,400 according to the material used for tlie 
drains. It was however generally agreed that it would never do 
to run sewage into the lake and that au intercepting sewer must 
be constructed to carry it down to the lake outfall. The com- 
mittee of 1881 above referred to recommended that Captain 
TuHoch's sewer should be built for this purpose. Eventually an 
improved edition, costing Ks. 94,000, of the most expensive of 
Mx. O'Shaughnessy's four schemes (that which provided for 
drains made of stone) was sanctioned in 1888 ; and in the follow- 
ing year a sum. of Rs. 40,000 more was passed for a square brick 
intercepting sewer from Glendower Hall to the Willow Bund 
and Rs. 66,985 for an iron pipe sewer running from thence along 
the margin of the lake to the lake outfall. These three under- 
takings were completed in March 1887. 

The brick intercepting sewer, however, has given trouble 
ever since, it often became silted up and it did not fulfil its one 
duty — that of keeping sewag-e out of the lake — as it so-often over- 
flowed through its manholes. The Sanitary Engineer reported 
in 1890 that its fall was too small, its section unsuitable, and the 
arrangements for keeping silt out of it defective ; and in. 1898 the 
portion from the market to the Willow Bund was replaced by 



LOCAL SKLJ-'-nOVElWMENT. OU / 

a nine-inch stoneware pipe, laid at a somewhat steeper gradient, CHAP. XIV. 

at a cost of Bs. 11,300, Oot^camunh 

But the sewer continued to act badly — silting up, leaking and pality." 

overflowing until it became a perennial nuisance — and in 1807, 

on the advice of the Sanitary Board, the nine-inch pipe was 
palled up and replaced by one three inches "bigger and a flushing- 
sluice on the stream which feeds the Lake was provided at the 
head of the sewer near Grlendower Hall, The work was done by 
the Public Works department and cost Ks. 41,080. In the 
following year, however, it was found that the upper section of 
the sewer, from the market to Grlendower Hall, which still con- 
sisted of the old square brick construction above described, was 
too weak to carry any proper head of water for flushing and it 
was replaced by a twelve-inch stoneware pipe at a- cost of 
Its. ] 4,600. It was aiso discovered that the iron pipe sewer along 
the margin of the lake had got out of alignment and leaked in 
several places, and this was put right and provided with man- 
holes at a cost of Bs. 10,000. In 1903 the Sanitary Board exam- 
ined the whole position afresh and came to the conclusion that 
the intercepting sewer needed to be entirely regraded and supplied 
with flushing tanks placed on the high ground above it ; and this 
is now being done as part of the general drainage scheme referred 
to below. Meanwhile (in 1893) the drainage of Eandal by open 
channels discharging into a sewer had been carried out at a cost 
of Us. 35,000 of which Government gave half. 

In 1903 the Sanitary Engineer drew up, under the orders of 
Government, a comprehensive scheme for the complete drainage 
of the whole town on modern lines with closed pipes and numer- 
ous house connections. This divided the place into fourteen 
blocks, including the main bazaar, each of which was to be treated 
separately, and provided for the regrading and flushing of the 
main sewer already mentioned, and for the establishment of a 
septic tank and sewage farmbelow the outfall of the ]ake alongside 
the new Paik&ra road. This extensive scheme met with little 
approval locally, the council and the Collector doubting whether 
closed drains were suited to the ways of the natives or could be 
properly flushed with the scant amount of water available. It 
was sanctioned in 19U5-06, the estimated cost being Bs. 3,83,020, 
and is now in progress, Government haying made a large grant 
towards it. 

J?or many years the residents of Ootacamund wore dependent Water- 
for their water upon wells, springs and streams, it was not sapp y 
,antil 1865 that the first systematic supply was established and 



308 



SHE NILfiiam 



CHAP. XIV 

OOTACAIHTSKI 
MUNICI- 
PALITY. 



The 

Marliraand 

supply. 



water from the southern slopes of Dodabetta was brought to a 
few of the houses in the south-west corner of the town by the 
aqueduct over the Coonoor road which for so many years markefl the 
entrance to the station, was subsequently replaced by under- 
ground pipes, and eventually collapsed in 1 904. 

The nest step was the preparation in 1868 by Major Farewell , 
District Engineer, of a sohemp to supply the houses lying to the 
north of the late from a reservoir (uow the Alarlimand reservoir) 
and th/i streams which flowed down, the sides of Suowdon Bill to 
the north of Snowdon House and above the Government Gardens. 
These streams had already, in ] 864-65, been tapped at a cost of 
Rs, 650 in order to supply water for the construction of the Col- 
lector's office and St. Bartholomew's Hospital, which were then 
being built. Major FareweiFs scheme also included a smaller 
reservoir on Dodabetta (the existing ' Dodabetta reservoir ') to 
increase the supply brought over the aqueduct above mentioned to 
the houses to the south of the lake. In both oases, to save 
expense, the water was to be brought in open channels. 

His proposals were sanctioned, and by 1870 both reservoirs 
were completed, The Dodabetta reservoir scheme, the channel of 
which was 5-| miles long, was handed over to the council on the 
first day of 1871; and the Marlimand project, the execution of 
which had in some ways proved unexpectedly troublesome, in 
1873-74. 

In 1877 Captain Morant, E.B., drew up a scheme for improv- 
ing the north (Marlimand) supply by, among other things,- adding 
three more reservoirs. His estimates amounted to Bs. 1,23,692, 
and the council applied to G-overnment for a loan of this sum ; 
but eventually the project was dropped. Captain Horant's 
report pointed out that both the Marlimand and Dodabetta reser- 
voirs were polluted by the plentifully-manured tea and other 
cultivation which lay within their catchment areas and that 
immense wastage of the supply in them, and also further pollution, 
was caused by carrying their water into the town in open 
channels. The committee of 1881 above referred to proposed 
accordingly to run intercepting drains round the cultivated por- 
tions of both catchment areas, making up the loss of water thus 
occasioned by tapping new tracts, to fence the whole of the catch- 
ment areas, and to pipe both supplies. The rough estimates for 
these improvements to the two sources of supply amounted to 
about Bs. 1,79,000 and Es. 75,000 respectively ; but the Govern- 
ment of India would not lend the money for them or permit the 
Madras Government to do so, and it was not until 1886 that any 
action followed. • 



tOGAL aEiiF-GfOVEBNHEHT, 309 

In that year an estimate for Bs. 5,70,000 for improving the Oji.Ar.XIY, 
Marlimand supply was sanctioned from Provincial funds, and the Ootacamunfi 
worl? was completed in April 1889. The improvements followed; PA utt." 

in their general principles, the proposals of the committee already 

mentioned. Part of the existing catchment area was eut out 
because it was contaminated, and was replaced by a collecting 
ground on Snowdon Hill which was the source of several 
rivulets. Those were intercepted aud carried to the reservoir in 
a covered channel. A service reservoir (the e Snowdon ponds') 
was made near Snowdon and the supply channel from Marlimand 
to the town way piped throughout. House connections were laid 
subsequently j partly at the cost of the owners of the buildings, 
benefited. 

The sanitary oxperts continued, however; to pass uncompli- 
mentary remarks regarding the quality of the Marlimand water, 
pointing out that a large bog lay at the head of the reservoir and 
that part of the catchment area consisted of fche Tudor Hall tea 
estate, with the dwelling-house and eooly lines thereon ; and in 
1895 the Sanitary Board even went so far as to recommend that the 
reservoir shuuld he practically abolished and the Snowdon ponds 
greatly enlarged to take its place. 

In 1896 Mr. GK T. Waleh, who had just retired from the post 
of Chief Engineer for Irrigation and was residing at Ootacamund, 
was appointed to consider the whole question of the water-supply of 
the station. In the ease of th« Marlimand supply he suggested 
that the Tudor Hall estate should, be acquired ; that the channels 
leading the Snowdon streams to the M arliniand reservoir should 
he lined with masonry ; that a certain stream above the Govern- 
ment Gardens should be diverted into them ; and that all the 
water from the reservoir should be filtered. Government agreed 
to Ms proposals regarding the Snowdon channels and they were 
oarried out. The filters and the acquisition of Tudor Hall wore 
thought unnecessary ; but the latter was subsequently agreed to, 
and in 1899 two lakhs were paid for 178 acres of the estate. 

The jDodabetta reservoirs had meanwhile attracted attention. The Bofla- 
Thero are really two of them ; but the smaller of these, which is ^ a1 ' 6861 " 
about 300 yards lower down the valley than the larger one and 160 
feet below it in level, is little more than a pond the ohiof supply 
to which is the s urplus from its bigger neighbour. In 1889 the 
Surgeon-General pointed out that cultivation lay within the catch- 
ment basin of the upper reservoir and that the delivery channel 
was polluted by the village which Btands near the old aqueduct, 
r Ke jeeeommended that the channel should be piped ; and this was 



810 



THE KTLGlttlS. 



CHAP. XIV. 

oota'jajiukt) 

Munici- 



'She Koaapa- 
mand rosar ■ 



The Tiger 

Hill 

reservoir. 



CliecHag- oi! 
orewuro 



effected by the end of 1892 at a cost of Us. "38,000. Mr. WaloVs 
report suggested that the private land within the catchment, area 
of the upper reservoir should be acquired (which was eventually done 
in 1899) but otherwise proposed no groat changes in this part of 
the town's supply. 

His recommendations however included, besides improvements 
to existing sources, the construction of two entirely new reservoirs, 
one above Kodapamand and the other on the Tiger Hill stream on 
Dodabetta. Both wore eventually carried oat. 

The form.Gr oil them had originally been designed by Mr, Nery, 
then municipal engineer, in I89i ; and it is formed bya low dam, 
placed across the Kodapamand stream above all sources of con- 
tamination, whence pipes run to the hamlets of Kodapamand and 
Yannarapettai (where most of the dhobiy live) and the houses 
along the KtHagiri road — see the map at p. 357. It cost 
Bs. 12,160. 

The Tiger Hill reservoir is a far more ambitious project. It 
-was carried out between 1901 and 1904 and cost Es. 1,26,738, of 
which G-overnment gave Bs. 40,000. It lies so far up the slopes of 
JDodahetta that it commands even the highest parts of the station 
and is thus of great use in supplementing the supply from Marli- 
raand. Its catchment area includes that of the upper Dodabetta 
reservoir (the private land within both was Required in 1899 at a 
total cost of lis. 42jl20) and it receives the surplus of this when it 
overflows— which it does during much of the year. The masonry 
dam across the Tiger Hill stream which formB the reservoir is 42 
feet high, five feet wide at the top and 27 feet at the bottom- 
The "water runs thence through a six-inch pipe to near "Walthara- 
sfcow, down to Charing Cross, and up to St. Stephen's Church, just 
above which it joins the mam from Maiiimand. 

A further matter which of late years has occupied much of the 
municipal council's attention, and which is certain to become more 
pressing as years go by, is the overcrowding to be found in the 
main bazaar. r ihi« great block of buildings has grown up at 
haphazard, little by little, without any guiding hand ; and now 
contains many exceedingly insanitary spots, traversed only by 
narrow lanes, where the people are huddled together to an extent 
which makes them a danger to the rest of the station when disease 
breaks out. The council has bought up one or two of the worst of 
these spots and improved them, and has opened out others ; but to 
knock down houses without providing substitutes only results in 
further crowding in those which are left. In 1903, therefore, the 
council resolved to acquire land just to the north of the Kanda!? 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT. 311 

bazaar, establish, a new suburb there, and move thither the CHAP. XXV. 
inhabitants of the worst portions of the main bazaar. The Ootacambnd 
advdto.tage of the Kandal site is that it lies in a valley quite M/lnici- 

distinct from that of the Gotaeanarmd lake and can thus be drained 

with comparatively little difficulty. 

The cost of the scheme, including- compensation for houses 
removed, laying out the new suburb, making roads through it 
and supplying it with water and drains, worked out to as much 
as Es. 2,80,000. The council made a beginning by spending 
Ks. 32,000 in acquiring 39 acres for the site, which it proposed 
to lease in small plots subject to a low ground-rent. 

The council subsequently proposed to acquire another site for 
a new suburb in the valley behind Bishopedown, which, like 
Kandal, is outside the catchment area of the lake. But Govern- 
ment discouraged the project and no action lias been taken. 



312 THE NILBIBIS. 

CHAPTER XT. 
GAZETTEER. 



OooNaort Taluk — Aravankad — Athikavihafcfci - BarHyfir — B£rgauni — Cootioor — 
J)&iad — Dimhatti — Huhkal Drug — Kafr&ri — Kengurai — Ktiti — Ktfdanad — 
K<5nakai , ai--Tiotag , iri— Sulaltaiabai— Meldr — Eanyasvami Peak — Wellington 
OoT4C.uiUKD Taldk. — Anaifcatti — Avalanche — Billikal — Kalhatfci — Masim- 
jjadi — MoIvoi''a Btmd-- M61kimdah — Mfikarti Peak — Naduvattam — Nan- 
jatiad — Ootacaraoad. — Siapara — Tim6ri. G6dah5k Taluk — Cherambadi — 
DeY&ta — ttddaliir — Mu.dama.tai — Nambal&kod — ■ NellakofcUi — STellifclam — 
Ouchterlany Valley — Pandaltlr. 



OO0K00R TALUK. 



CHAP. XV. Ooonoor, which is named after its head- quarters, is the more 
Coonooh. easterly of tke two taluks oil the plateau and includes tlie old 
divisions of Peranganad and Merkunad. Its limits and shape 
sufficiently appear from tke map in the pocket at the end of this 
volume and statistics regarding it are given in the separate 
Appendix, The places in it worth a note are tke following :— 

AravaBkid (Arvenghat) : A valley in the revenue village of 
Vubatalai lying three miles from Ooonoor on the road to Ootaca- 
mund. The name is supposed to mean ' the jangle of h'TiftU 
(doob) grass.' The place was originally known i as ' Sappers'* 
Vallsy J because the Sappers and Miners who made the first 
rough, road from Ooonoor to Qotaeamund had their camp there. 
In 1857 the Castle Brewery (see p. 289) was established in this 
valley s the site being selected on account of the excellent 
water available, and the records of those days refer to the place 
under the names ' Glen Owen ', ' Glen Arven ' and ( Arvan 
Ghaut.' 

The old road and the new railway from Ooonoor to 
Ootacamund both pass through the valley and the latter has a 
station there. 

Aravank^d is now best known for the Government Cordite 
Factory which has been established there, the red buildings of 

1 See Onohfcerlony's survey report in M.J.L.S., ky, 46, and his map in the 
ieeo&d edition of Baikie'u Msilghsrries, 



SAZETTBSK, 318 

■which form a. small town "by themselves with the residences of CHAP. XT. 
the officers in ohargo perched prominently along- tho top of a C "° f Q , Qa ' 
ridg$ above them. 

The establishment of a Cordite Factory in Iadia was 
sanctioned by the Secretary of State in the latter half of 1899, 
experiments previously carried out at Kirkee having proved 
the feasibility of making that explosive in fchie country. The 
building of the factory began in May 1 000 and manufacture in 
July 1904. 1 

The site selected stands about 6,000 feet above sea level, 
and the main gate is on the Cooaoor-Ootacamund road about 
four miles from the Oooaoor railway -station. The position is 
suitable owing both to its equable and temperate climate and to 
the general lie of the ground, which latter renders possible the 
isolation of danger buildings in separate hollows and the erection 
of the various parts of the factory in such a manner that water 
and other liquids can be run by gravity from one to another as 
required. 

The factory is run by hydro- electric power, which is oh tamed 
at the Kateri falls, distant about 3|- miles as the crow flies. 
Just above the falls a dam 38 feet high has been bailt across the 
outlet of a natural basin and a reservoir with a storage capacity 
of 12^ million, cubic feet has been formed. From this the water 
is carried to the power house at the foot of the falls hy a 24-inch 
riveted steel pipe approximately 2,100 feet in length. The 
difference in level "between the dam and the power house is 
650 feet, giving an effective head pressure of 620 feet. 

The power house is 100 feet long by 30 feet wide and 34 
feet high to the eaves, and is designed to contain the whole of 
the generating plant. This consists of four 125 K. W, sets and 
one 500 IL W. set (three-phase, alternating currant, 40 cycles) 
giving current at 5,000 volts, fitted with hydraulic turbines of 
the c modified Gerard ; type ; the generators are separately 
excited from direct current generators (output 280 amperes at 
110 volts ) fitted with turbines of the same typo as above of 37 
H. P. each. 

The high-tension power transmission lines to the transformer 
house at the factory are each No. 1 S.W.Gh copper wire carried 
on steel posts with wooden arm-brackets. In the transformer 
house there are Hva transformers (5,000 to 880 volts) of the 
three-phase air-cooled type. 

1 E"or tke'foUowrag account of it I am indebted to the courlcsy oi Major 
B. Mi Babington, E.A., itsi Superintended. 



314 THE NILGTEIS. 

CHAP. XT, Power within the factory "both for running machinery and 

Ooonoob. for lighting- purposes is distributed on the underground system, 
the cables being- laid in earthenware troughing and oast upTwith 
pitch (solid system). The motors at the various buildings vary 
in size from 3 B.H.'R to CO B.H.P., each of them (except the 
small ones) having its own switch, starting-box and ammeter 
placed in a convenient position. 

Owing to the distance apart at which it is necessary to pla.ee 
danger buildings, the factory proper covers a considerable area of 
ground. Tt in divided into tho following nine branches: Acid, 
■Gun-cotton, Nifcro-glycoriuc, Cordite, Cannon Cartridge; Mecha- 
nical, Plumbers, Laboratory and Groneral. The first five of these 
are the main manufacturing' branches. 

Acitl Branch. In a factor}' for the manufacture of cordite in 
India the supply of acids is a most important matter. It is 
impossible to purchase thorn in. the country and the cost of 
importing them from hlurope is prohibitive, It was therefore 
necessary to instal plants at Aravankad not only for manufactur- 
ing both nitric and sulphuric acids but also for re concentrating 
' waste ' acids, i.e., those which had been used in the manufacture 
either of gun-cotton or nitro-glycerine. 

After manufacture, the strong acids are raised in the proportion 
required for the manufacture of gun-cotton aud nitro-glv cerine 
and are stored in steel boilers each holding between 30,000 lb. 
and 35,000 lb. 

Gnn-coMon Branch . The manufacture of gun-cotton is effected 
as follows : Cellulose in the form of cotton waste, having been 
picked over by hand, c teased ', and dried, is treated with strong 
nitric acid, sulphuric acid being used to absorb the water formed 
and so keep the nitric acid concentrated. During this treatment 
the colhilosej without changing in outward appearance 3 is nitrated, 
i.e. t turned into gun-cotton. The gun-cotton is then wrung in a 
centrifugal machine to get rid of surplus acid, nest washed 
several times in cold water, again wrung and finally taken to the 
vat house to be boiled. It afterwards passes through 'beaters ' 
which cut it up into a fine impalpable pulp, and is nest run into 
a ' poacher ' in which it is blended and given a final washing 
preparatory to pressing it into primers or slabs etc. according to 
whether it is required for the manufacture of cordite or for use 
by itself. For the manufacture of cordite the gun-cotton is 
pressed lightly into primers and dried. 

Witro- glycerine Branch, The manufacture of nitro-glycerine is 
■an exceedingly dangerous operation, and visitors to the factory 



GAZETTE Ell, 315 

(unless specially authorized) are not allowed to enter this branch. CHAP. XV. 
The substance is made by slowly running glycerine into a mixture Ooonoor. 
of nitric and sulphuric acids. It is a heavy oily liquid which 
will not mix with water, ard it is well, washed both with soda 
solution and pare water, dried and filtered. It is then mixed 
with dry gun-cotton for the manufacture of cordite. 

Oordite Branch, The gun-cotton and nit ro- glycerine, after 
being partially mixed by hand in the' nitro-glycerine branch 
and converted into ' paste \ are forwarded to the cordite branch. 
Here in the main building the paste, to which a solvent (acetone) 
and a small percentage of mineral jelly have been added, is 
kneaded ia incorporating machines until it is thoroughly mixed 
and gelatinized, the product being known as ' dough.' 

This dough is then taken to the presses, which are situated 
in the same building, and squirted through dies of different sizes 
according to the diameter of cord required and thus converted 
into cordite. To the layman, this is perhaps the prettiest opera- 
tion in the series and he never fails to be struck with the ease 
and apparent safety with which the innocent-looking yellow cords 
arc wound off on reels and chopped into given lengths. 

The oordite is next placed in. trays and allowed to dry so that 
the acetone and any other volatile matter may be driven oft. It 
is then ' blended ! to ensure uniformity, and is finally packed and 
despatched either to the ammunition factories at Dnm-Dum and 
"Kirkee or to the cannon cartridge branch in this factory, 

Otmn/m Cartridge Branch. In this branch tha cordite 
manufactured, in the factory is made up into cartridges. Cannon 
oartridg'es (except those for quick-firing guns) are macLo here, 
and in these the cordite is placed in silk or shalloon cloth bags 
which are stamped with the nomenclature etc. of the cartridge. 

The names of the four remaining branches sufficiently explain 
the nature of the work carried on in them and they need no 
description. 

The total European staff of the factory is as follows : Superin- 
tendent, Assistant Superintendent, Danger Building Officer, 
Manager and three Chemists, Chief Mechanical Engineer, 
Mechanical. Engineer, Chief Foreman Plumber, three Electrical 
Engineers, and 43 Foremen, Assistant Foremen, Soldier Mechanics 
and Leading Hands. The average number of native workmen 
employed is about 950. The factory is easily capable of turning 
• out all the cordite required for India. 



316 TEE WILQIBIS. 

CHAP, XV. Athikarihatti X rievcn miles west of Ooonoor, population 

CooN-ooa. 3,245. Is a village of the Athik&ri section ol the Badagas ; whence 
its name. The story goes that these people, under a leader nsJked 
Karibetta Uaya, came from Sarigur in Mysore territory and settled 
first at rfelliturai (a short distance south-west of Mettupalaiyafii) 
and afterwards at Tudur (on the plateau west of Kulakainbai) 
and Tadasiraarahatti (to the north-west of Melur) and that it 
was they who erected the sculptured cromlechs of Tudur and 
Melur referred to on p. 100. 

Tudur and TadasimnrahatfcL are now both deserted; but in 
the former a cattle-kraal, an old shrine and a pit for fire- walking 
may still be seen, and in the latter another kraal and one of the 
raised, stone platforms called mandaikallu by the Badagas. 
Tradition says that the Badagas left these places and founded 
Athikarihatfci and its hamlets instead, because the Kurumbas 
round about continually troubled them with their magic arts and 
indeed killed by sorcery several of their most prominent citizens. 

The hamlet of Muttinad, about a mile north-east of Atbikari- 
hatti proper, is the place where are made most of the coffee-wood 
and other walking-sticks which are so industriously hawked about 
Ootacamund and Coonoor. 

Another mile further on in the same direction is KoHimalai,, 
the only Ivota village in the Merkunad. 

Barliyar : About seven miles down the ghat from Ooonoor 
to Me'ttnpalaiyani, population 3,234. The Barli river is here 
crossed by the ghat road and a chattram stands close by. Before 
the railway diverted so much of the road traffic, the spot was 
a well-known halting- place on the ghat road and the population 
was larger. To the north of it is a hamlet of Kurumbas. The 
Government Garden hero has been referred to in Chapter IV, 

Berganili: A hamlet of the revenue village of Nedugula 
situated about four miles in a straight line north of Kotagiri. 
It is famous among the Badagas all over the plateau for its temple 
to Hdtti or Hettauuna, the apotheosis of a woman who committed 
aati. There are other similar shrines to her and other victims of 
sati in other villages, bat Chat at Barganni is far the best known 
of them, and vows and visits are made to it even by the Badagas 
living near the distant Kuudahs. Vows generally take the form of 
dedicating a cow or she-buffalo to the shrine, and the institution now 
possesses o,bout a hundred animals obtained in this way. They 
are looked after hj a pujari who is always a youth under the age 
of 21j lives within the temple (which is just like an ordinary 
Badaga house) and uses it as the dairy. His pos ition and duties,, 



GAZETTEER. 31? 

resemble curiously those of the Tocla palol (see p. 140) and have OHAP. XV, 

apparently been imitated there from. Ho is .forbidden, for Ooonoor. 

exa&ple, to have anything to do with (or even to look upon) any 

woman so long as ho holds office, and if he suspects that any of 

tlife fair sex are anywhere near when he want-j to leave the shrine, 

he raises a shout as a signal for them to scatter and hide ; his 

office, like the palol's, is temporary, and when lie reaches the age 

of 21 he quits it, marries, and becomes as other men ; his duties 

are to tend the sacred cattle and he lives on their milk and ghi ; 

and once a year, at the annual festival, he is presented with his 

clothing for the next twelve months — a t urban, upper oloth and 

waist-cloth, all of which are specially woven for him on the spot 

by 'Sedans (Tamil weavers) specially imported for the purpose 

from the plains. This annual festival is the occasion when those 

who have made vows bring up their cattfe to dedicate them to the 

shrine, but otherwise the ceremonies thereat are not peculiar. 

On the tops of the hills round about Berganni are at least 
thirteen cairns, of which only two appear to have been opened by 
Breeks. 

Coonoor : Head-quarters of the Ooonoor subdivision and taluk, 
a municipality, and the second largest town in the district. 
According to the 1901 census, its population was 8,525 souls, but 
this enumeration was made in March, before the annual influx of 
hot-weather visitors and their following had begun, and in the 
height of c the season ' the numbers are much greater. 

The place is built round a wide, broken valley un the edge of 
the crest of the plateau at the head of the great ravine up which 
run the road (21 miles long) and railway (16 - 90 miles) to it from 
Mettupalaiyam, and some of its houses command vimvs down this 
ravine and across it to the plains below. This gives the Ooonoor 
scenery an advantage over that of Uotacamund, which stands in the 
middle of the plateau; but on th> other hand the dendf mists which 
in the evenings often roll up the ravine from the lower ground are a 
corresponding drawback. The place is eleven miles irom Ootaca- 
mund by the ghat road and is some 1,500 feet lower down, the 
Ooonoor church being 5,954 feet above the sea and St. Stephen's 
at Ootacamund 7,429 feet. This difference in elevation makes 
Ooonoor warmer, more suited to sub-tropical plants (such as tree- 
ferns) and to roses, more relaxing, but less trying to the 
liver and lungs; moreover the heights to the west of it keep 
off the worst ox the long south-west monsoon which is apt to 
be so depressing at Ootacamund, though it suffers more than 
that place from the north-east rains and the strong east wind 



328 THE NILG1EIS. 

CHAP. xv. which follows them; further; the sites along the edge of the 
Coomjor. plateau overlooking the ravine and those on the high ridge 
which bounds the station proper on the north are tin equalled for 
residences "by any in Ootacamund ; and finally the bazaar lies in a 
separate hollow away from, and "below, the European quarter. 
For all these reasons, many visitors to the hills forgive the place 
the cramped site which is its chief disadvantage and prefer it to 
Ootacamund. Lady Wen lock rented the house at Coonoor called 
c Brooklands ' for two seasons and lived there, instead of at 
Ootacamund, a great part of that time. 

In a valley adjoining- Coonoor and on the ridges above it stands 
the Wellington Cantonment referred to below, and the two places, 
though under different forms of administration, practically form 
one town. Just beyond Wellington, but four miles up the road 
from Coonoor to Ootacamund, is the Aravankad Cordite Factory, 

The map attached will give some idea of the lie of Coonoor, 
though on so small a scale it is nut possible to show hill contours. 
Ihe great ravine mentioned above lies south of it. on either side 
ol the ICateri river, and on the top of the precipitous further 
side of this, facing Coonoor, is perched the old fort of Hulikal 
Drug referred to below. The lowest point in the town proper is 
near the railway-station and the now defunct Ashley engineering 
works, close to which three streams winch drain the neigh- 
bourhood unite and fall over the rocky hp of the plateau under 
tl 10 name of the Coonoor river to join the Kateri sti-eam a thousand, 
feet below. On this Coonoor river, near its junction with the 
Kateri; is a pretty cascade known (from the officer who built the 
ghat road) as ' Law's fall ' ; and a little lower down the torrent is 
crossed by the iron girder ( Wenlock bridge/ which carries the 
ghat road over it. 

West of the Coonoor railway-station, on the low ground near 
the municipal office and market and also up the Mount Boad lead- 
ing to the hospital, is built the native bazaar ; and well above this, 
on a long high ridge which runs from Sim's Park to the Olenview 
hotel and is crossed by a convenient saddle at the post office (see 
the plan) are some of the best residential sites in the place. A 
conspicuous point from many of them is the hill known as 
Teneriffe (the 'Coonoor Betfca ' oi the maps), which is 6.894 feet 
high, or only %Z4 feet below the Ootacamund lake. At the 
northern end of this ridge, near Sim's Park, two spurs run out 
to the east and west and on these, along the roads which lead 
respectively up to Eotagiri and down into the valley which 
divides Coonoor from Wellington, are other excellent sites.* 



GAZETTEER 31 9 

Round Tiger Hill, on the southern, limit of the station, runs a CHAP. XV. 
drive commanding' 'beautiful views of the plains, and this goes on (Joonoor. 
intfl* Lord Hoburt's road, which leads along the very edge of the ~~~~ 

plateau, overlooking the low country, to Lamb's Uoek, Lady 
Canning's Seat and the "Dolphin's Nose (called Mukkumalai by 
the natives), a carious peak which is very prominent from the 
plains. 

Sim's Park is so named from its founder, Mr. J. D. Sim, c.s.i. ; 
Member of Council in 1870-75, who during the last few years of 
his residence in India devoted much time and attention to 
forming it and laying it out. It has already been referred to on 
p. 206 above. 

The Glenview hotel, formerly known as Davidson's, is the 
oldest hotel in Goonoor and was mentioned in appreciative terms 
by Burton as far back as 1847. As its name implies, it is built 
on the very edge of the ravine. Two other excellent hotels are 
Gray's (formerly known as ' the Union hotel ') and Hill Grove, 
which also stand on the ridge already referred to. 

The Tiger Hill and Lord Hobart's roads were made between 
1878 and .1875, and ui the latter year the second of them was 
named in memory of the Lord Hobart who had been Governor of 
Madras since 1872 and had just diod at Madras. 

Lamb's Bock was so called 1 by the then Collector, Mr. E. B. 
Thomas, after a Captain Lamb who had gone to much trouble 
and expense in opening up a path to the place. The rook is a 
perfectly sheer precipice of several hundred feet rising straight 
up from the Coouoor ravine and commanding gorgeous views 
across this and down to the plains. It is a most popular spot for 
picnics. 

Lady Canning's Seat (also named by Mr. Thomas) commands 
similar, but even more wonderful, views and is marked by a 
small summer-house built just above the road at the point where 
it rounds a great shoulder of rock 4^ miles from Goonoor. 
Charlotte, Countess Canning, wife of the then Viceroy, visited 
Madras, Bangalore and the Nilgiris during' the Mutiny. Shu 
apparently came tip by the Sig'ur ghat, and she arrived at 
Ooonoor from Gotaeamund on tho 7th April 1858, her party 
occupying" three detached bungalows which now form part of the 
Glenview hotel and in which Lord Dalhousie had previously 
stayed from May to August 1855, In The Story of Two Noble 

1 For this and other items of interest I mu iiulebteil to Mr. Alexander 
Allan, one of the oUleni residents Iu Coonoor, 



S20 THE XXL0IB1S. 

OHAP. XT. Lives 1 -will be found some of tlie letters she wrote during her 
cookoor stay thore and afterwards at Kotagiri. Slie was enchanted with 
the place, its climate and the views from it ; spent her &me 
riding, -walking, sketching- and "botanizing ; compares the view 
down to the plains with that over the Mediterranean from the 
Oorniche, and the Wellington barracks to the Escurial; and only 
regrets the distance which separated her from the stirring events 
which were then proceeding. 

Other "buildings along the ridge at Ooonoor already mentioned 
which runs from Sim's Park to the Glenview hotel are the Glob, 
the Library, the Pasteur Institute and All Saints' Church. 

The Oiub "began with a tennis court or two which were 
situated near the back of the present courts and made in the 
seventies by General Richard Hamilton, so well known for his 
papers on sport on the hills written over the nam de plume of 
f Hawkeye.' Mr. Gray of Gray's hotel, to whom the land 
belonged, eventually put up a small room there, which is still 
standing. Later a regular ( Tennis club ' was established on the 
spot and in 1894 the adjoining house, ' Blackheatk,' was rented. 
On the 1st September 1897 the Club moved into the original 
portion of the present club-house, which had just been built. 
Later on tho Assembly Rooms close by, the squash racquet court, 
the chambers, the rink and the billiard room were built in turn, 
the last being finished in 1906. 

The Library was started in 1864 and at first was located in 
the building now occupied by the post office. When the Assembly 
Rooms just mentioned were put up, a small room in them was 
allotted to the library, and in 1903 the present large building was 
erected from debentures at a cost of Rs. 20,000 from designs by 
Major E. "H.B. Stokes-Boberts, B.B. Mr. Gray made a gift of 
the land. 

The Pasteur Institute has recently been opened. It is 
designed to provide for Southern India the benefits which the 
similar institute at ICasauii confers upon the north, and was built 
chiefly from a munificent donation presented to Lord Guraon, 
when Viceroy, for such purposes as he might select, by Mr. 
Phipps, an American subject. The estimates for the main 
building were Ha. 60,480, for subsidiary buildings Bs. 10,750 
and for the land Bs. 8,750, These do not include furniture and 
miscellaneous needs. 

1 By Augustus J, C. Hare [Qecrge Allen, £.ondori f 1893). 



gazbttebb. 3S1 

The foundation stone of All Saints' Church was laid on 3rd OHAP. XV. 
September 1^51 in tile presence of the Chaplain, the Hon. Mr. Ooonoob. 
J. ST. Thomas (Membei 1 of Council), Major- General BracHey 
Kennett of tne Bombay Army, Mr. E.B. Thomas (the Collector)., 
Captain P. M. Francis, Hadras Engineers (the architect) } and 
others. Services used previously to "be held in a room in 
' The Lodge/ next door, the house of G-eneral Keimett. He 
made a free gift of the land for the church and took great 
interest in its construction. The residents of Coonoor subscribed 
Ra. 6,000 for the edifice, but this was insufficient either to provide 
the best materials or to secure speedy work ; and the monsoon of 
1852 burst before the roof was on, with the result that the tower 
and most of the eastern wall, which were made of inferior bricks 
laid in clay, came down. Up to then Ks. 8,632 had been spent. 

Government was applied to for assistance aud sanctioned a 
sum of Rs. 4,(374 for completing the work, but declined to pay the 
cost (Rs. 1,250) of rebuilding the tower. This latter item had in 
the meantime been completed from additional private subscriptions 
(the total amount of which had risen to tXs. 8,983) and eventually 
Government sanctioned a further allotment which brought its 
contribution up to Bs. 7 ; 177 aud the total cost of the building to 
Ks. 16,160. General Kennett presented to the church (at a cost 
of Rs. 800) a clock and an east window, much of the glass in 
which was painted by his own hand, and Mr. J". 5\ Thomas gave 
a font worth another B-s. 300. The '.milding was consecrated oa 
18th March 1864. 

General Kennett was murdered in The Lodge in October 
1857. The crime was instigated by a Mnsalman of Oawnpore 
who had opened a cloth bazaar in Coonoor and borrowed money 
from the General, and he and his accomplices broke into the house 
during the night and stabbed their victim so severely that he died 
five days later. Throe of them were hanged. 1 The General is 
buried in the All Saints'' cemetery. 

Up to 1859 Coonoor was an appanage of the chaplaincy at 
Wellington, but in May of that year the station was made into a 
separate chaplaincy with Coimbatore and PCighat as out- stations. 
In 1883 Govei'mnent made the church a grant of a sum of 
Bs. 6,790 which had been lately expended in repairing its roof, 
altering and improving the seats and building a compound wall ; 
and supplied it, from the Madras arsenal, with a new bell in 
place of its old one, which had cracked. Next year half the 

1 See Reports of Criminal eases determined in the JPovgdaree Udalat f viii, 
S8-66. 

41 



322 THE NILGIETS. 

CHAP. XV. sittings wero let for fixed amounts to raise a fund for the niainten- 
CooNooa. a -noe of tie choir, clock, etc. 

In 1874 the Bishop asked for a grant for adding a chaifcel ; 
but the Government remarked that they had already given 
Rs, 7 ,1 77 for the construction of the church and anotner 
Rs. 12,530 for its improvement and repair, and coaid afford no 
more. Eventually about "Rs. 0,000 weie raised by public sub- 
scription and from the Diocesan Church Building Fund, and on 
10th August 1870 the foundation stone of the chancel was laid 
by Bishop Gell. The designs were executed by Major J. L. L. 
Slorant, K.E., District Engineer of the Nilgirts, who had a special 
penchant for ecclesiastical architecture, and they were approved 
by Colonel (formerly Captain) Francis, the original architect of 
the main building, The work consisted in slightly lengthening 
the nave, erecting a chaucel. supplying a new east window in 
place of General Kennett J s, making a vestry, and other minor 
items. 

The cemetery was enlarged in 1885; in 1888 the building 
was roofed with Mangalore tiles ; and in 189-1 the chancel was 
altered to make room for a new organ. All these improvements 
were done at Government cost- 

The chnroh stands in a neat churchyard planted with weeping 
cypress trees, Gupressas funebris. The numerous graves around it 
(the earliest of which is dated 1852) include those of many 
soldiers ; of the wives of Surgeon- Major Francis Day, whose books 
on Indian fish are so well known, and of W. S. Lilly, formerly 
of the Civil Service, who retired on an invalid pension in 1872 
and became the author of On Shibboleths and other philosophical 
works ; and that of Bishop Gelh In 1905 a new cemetery was 
laid out on Tiger Hill. A Boinan Catholic burial-ground is 
attached to St, Anthony's Church. 

This last, and also the American Mission chnroh, have 
already been referred to in Chapter III and in Chapter X will be 
found some account of some of the educational institutions in 
Coonoor. Municipal matters and the water-supply of the station 
are mentioned in Chapter XIY and the hospital in Chapter IX. 

The growth of Coonoor has been extremely rapid. The first 
beginnings of the station date from the time when the old ste"ep 
ghSt road up to it from Me"ttupalaiyam (see p. 228) was made in 
1830-82. The camp of the Pioneers who were constructing this 
was near the present railway-station ; and Baikie's Neilgherrm, 
which was written in 1833, says (pp. 9, 16) that the six or eight 
small bungalows which then existed in Ooonoor all belonged to 



OAZTnTfiKH. 82$ 

the Pioneer officers, and that the only public accommodation, in (JHAP. XV 

the/>laec was a.t the old travellers' bnngalow, which stood on the C OD nook. 

knoll above the railway- station now occupier! by the new taluk — 

cutcherry finished in 190b' The map attached to Dr. Benaa's 

sketch of 1836 of the geology of. the plateau 1 also shows only the 

Pioneers'" camp, the travellers' bungalow and the old village of 

Coonoor. This last (the name of which has been supposed to 

mean either £ hill village ' or ' little village ') was a hamlet of the 

Badaga village of -Jakkatal'a and then stoor] just north-east of 

' the Fountain ' at Wellington, Even in 1<S38 Surgeon De Burgh 

Birch, in his Topographical 'Report on the Neilyherriesf disposes 

of Ooonoor in sight depreciatory lines, saying that it ( is not a 

station, but as it once was the place of encampment of the 

Sappers, it cannot pass unnoticed. It is only just at the summit 

of the ghat, which is covered with thick jungle, and being only 

0,000 feet high is sometimes feverish and therefore objectionable 

as a station/ Official records show that in 1842 only four 

gentlemen (Mr. H. R. Dawson, Major-Q-eneral Keiuiett, Major- 

Greneral Wahab and Mr. Norris) owned houses there and that 

the iirst of these and a Captain Vallancey occupied between them 

106 cawnies of ( coffee and mulberry plantations.' 

The Ooonoor ghat, however, rapidly began to oust all other 
routes up to the Nilgiris ; and Coonoor, being at the head of this 
and possessing other intrinsic advantages, soon grew. Ouehter- 
loay's survey report of 1847 3 calls it a : settlement ' and speaks of 
residences of Europeans, an hotel (perhaps the present Glenview), a 
bazaar in the hollow below them and a masonry bridge (still in 
existence) over the stream down there. The European and Eurasian 
population, however, still numbered only nine persons and the 
adult natives only 288. Ouchterlony's map, printed in the second 
edition of Baikie's N'eilgketTtes, distinguishes 'Old Ooonoor/ the 
Badaga hamlet above referred to, from the present Coonoor. 
Burton's Gaa and the Blw Mountains, which was also written in 
1847, contains a rough sketch of the place, evidently taken from 
near the travellers' bungalow, which latter he describes as £ that 
long rambling thing perched on the hill above the little bazaar, and 
renowned for broken windows, tireless rooms and dirty, comfort- 
loss meals.' 1 This sketch shows ten European houses ; but, except 
that two of them are clearly Glenview and The Lodge, it is not 
easy to make out which others of the present houses these, the 
earliest residences in the station, represent. Burton mentions a 
1 M.J.L.S., h, 841, 2 lUd., viii, 09, 



324 THE MTLGIBId. 

Oil A.?. XV. Toda raand close to David&on's hotel and there was also one in the 
Coonooe. nollow by the present badminton courts at the Club. ~Woodcote 5 
' which is above the old travellers' bungalow and so not included 

in Burton's sketch, was built by Mr. Lasoelles in 1847 ; and not 
long afterwards General 3. W. Cleveland built the three houses 
near by named Balaclava, Alma and Inkerinan which were 
commonly known collectively as ' the Crimea property.' 

The second edition of Baikie's jSFeilgkemes, published in 1857, 
says there were then 24 well built and ■well furnished houses in 
the station, besides the foar detached bungalows which constitu- 
ted the Glenview (then called Davidson's) hotel. In the garden 
of the latter grew fit is declared) oranges, peaches, nectarines, 
plums, apples and pears, ( all equal to any that Co vent Garden 
exhibits ' and ( a great variety of splendid flowers.' The Church, 
as has been seen, had also been built by then. The bazaar,, 
however, was ill-supplied, and stores (and also servants, ponies 
and carriages) were best obtained from Ootacamund. 

By lb6G, when the place was first made a municipality, there 
were 42 bungalows in it and 263 ' native houses and shops. 
Coffer estates had now been opened all round it and had added to 
its importance. At the census of 1871 the total population 
numbered 3,058. Shortly afterwards the new ghat road from 
Mettupalaiyam was opened and became the highway to the 
Nilgiris, and the rapid growth of the town in the next SO years is 
sufficiently indicated by the census figures 
given in the margin, though these, as has 
already been said, give only the cold- 
weather population. In .1883 the Mithorai 
and K£teri Gold Mining Go. started work on land a little to the 
south of c the milk village ' on the old road to Ootacamund, but 
* no payable quartz was ever found. The construction of the rack- 
railway up the ghat in 1899, its extension to Ootacamund which 
\b now proceeding, and the great influx of labour and traffic 
occasioned by the establishment of the Cordite factory close by 
have in the last ten years quite altered the nature of the place. 
It is now so crowded that schemes for its extension to the west 
are under consideration ; and in 1905 the deputy tahsildar (who 
was first appointed in 18(50) was replaced by a tahsildar and 
the station, was made the head-quarters of the European Head 
Assistant Collector. 

Senad : A village of 1,230 souls, almost all Sivachari Ba&agasj, 
situated seven miles in a straight line east by north of 3I5tagiri. 
It was the first village on the plateau seen by the first Kuxopean 



1881 


... 4,W8 


1891 


... 6,049 


1801 


... 8.535 



OAKETTEBft. SSfc 

visitors, who (see p. 107) caiiw up by the path to it from OH a P. XV 

DaniiHyalcan.lt 6 ttiu , a ad lis name appears in the records regarding Coon-doe. 

the early expeditions to the hills under variotiw curious forms, 

such as Dernaacl ami SJynaud. la those day.-i it boasted a 

travellers 1 bungalow. It is now well known all over the eastern sid^ 

of the hills for its tire-walking- festival, which is only- second in 

importance to tho more elaborate ceremony at Metur referred to 

below, and differs from it in one or two points. Other similar 

festivals are also held at Ja.kkaae.ri and Nodugnla. It takes place 

on the Monday following the February new moon, near the , 

Jadayasva'mi temple to the north-east of the village. Those who 

intend to walk through the .fire arrive the night before and bathe 

the next n ornmg. The fire is lighted by em Udaya (Wodeya), 

or ^ivaohari priest, who afterwards offers to it a eoc-janut and 

some plantains, sprinkles a little holy water on. it, burns camphor 

and incense, and then leads the procession through it. A dance 

by both sexes to Kofca music generally occupies the nest afteruoon. 

As at MeTiir, this fire-walking appears to be primarily an 
agricultural festival, for no one will plough his fields before it has 
taken place and a Khrnmba is fetched up to sow the first seeds. 

Bimhatti : A. hamlet of Kotagiri lying about a mile to the 
north of the parent village on a lower sheltered spur running 
nearly north and south. In a, similar position oa a parallel spur 
half a mile away stands the Badaga hamlet of Kannerinmkka, and 
this latter is the place which was called. Dimhutty by the earliest 
"European visitors to the hills. It is of interest as being- the first 
spot on the Nilgiris on which European dwellings were built and 
is constantly referred to in the books and records about the first 
settlements on the plateau. 

The only trace of European occupation now remaining is a two- 
storeyed, building standing in ,.i ilvkl ol korali just north of the 
Badaga hamlet. 1 'his now belongs to the Badagas there andis 
used as a potato and hny godown, but its present uses and dilapida- 
tion, do not conceal the fact that it was once an excellent little 
dwelling-. It contains four rooms, is well and substantially built 
of brick in mortar (few houses on the hills, even nowadays, aspire 
to more than brick in mud), is coated with fine chunam, has a 
terraced roof supported oa strong* teak beams, a neatly- finished 
wooden sfcaircase : teak doors with brass hinges and ornamental 
plaster cornices running round the .rooms. In front of it was 
once a verandah. Tho Badagas call it i Sullivan's bungalow/" and 
it was apparently Irailfe by Mr, Sullivan, Collector of Ooimbatore 
, and the jMilgiris. That gentleman, is shown by official records to 
have had a bungalow at Dimhatti in 1821 (which Sir Frederick 



o«St> TKK NTtiGlRlS. 

OHAP. XV. Price thinks lis must have built dining his stay there in 1819) 
CoumoTi and a medical report on the hills written in June 1822 by Assistant 
Surgeon Orton says that the Collector's (Mr. Sullivan's) establish- 
ment was then ' placed * at Dimhatti ; Hough's Letters on ike 
Neilghervlm, written in 182 1 ! and already several times quoted, 
speaks of ( a very commodious bungalow ' at this place and says 
that Johnstone. Mr. Sullivan's gardener at Ootacamund, informed 
Mm. that ' lie commenced gardening at Dimhutty, 3 which shows 
that Mr. Sullivan had at least a garden there ; and Captain B. S. 
Ward's report on his survey of the hills, which was probably 
•written about the end of 1822, says ( several bungalows nave 
been built in different pleasant situations, as at Dimhutty, and 
here is a very good kitchen garden.' Ton years later this latter 
was described as l one of the earliest, and still one of the best, 
kitchen gardens on the hills.' It may seem odd that Mr. 
Sullivan should have erected such a substantial and well-finished 
residence in such a spot at so early a date, but the way he 
subsequently launched out into an expensive residence and a big 
garden at Ootacamund shows that "he was a gentleman of lavish 
ideas. 

He moved to Ootacamund hi 1822, apparently m April, and 
the Dimhatti bouse passed to the Church. Missionary Society — how 
and when, the Society possesses no records to show. At some 
subsequent date it aiid five adjacent smaller bungalows (which had 
apparently been built by the CM.S. and have now vanished) were 
purchased for nearly Es. 5,0**0 by Mr. S.E, Lnshington, the then 
Governor of Madras who had taken, so much interest in the 
openingup of the Itfilgiris. When the latter left India in 1832 
he placed all sis bungalows and the kitchen garden under the 
care of the Officer Commanding the Nilgiris and the Collector., 
with instructions that they should be made available, at a nominal 
charge sufficient to meet repairs, for people who were in need 
of a change to the hills but were deterred by the high rents 
demanded there. 1 

Sketches of Dimhatti and the bungalows appear both in 
Harkness' book on the Tod as published in 18 t2 and in the 1834 
edition of Baikie'a Neilyherries , and in the former the larger bun- 
galow above describe'! and its five smaller neighbours are very 
clearly indicated. The Committee appointed to report on the 
prospects of the hills as a sanitarium had sugg-ested, just before 
Mr. Lushington's bequest was made, that Dimhatti should, be 

1 His minute on the matter is pf'nted in full on pp. 122-4' of Jervw* 
Narrative- of a Jowwy to thi Walls of the Omve>% already several timea cited * 



constituted a separate sanitarium subordinate to Ootacamund, OHAP. XV. 
J)r. Baikie had reported very favourably on its climate 1 and it Oookooe, 
w&& GQHYe-n.ien.tly placed at the head of the rough gbit from ' 

Sirumugai, near Mettupalaiyain, which had linen constructed in. 
I820-2B "by the Pioneers at Mr. Sullivan's suggestion. Grovem- 
raent, however, reserved this proposal for further consideration 
and no action was ever taken. Ootacamund, in fact, "by this time 
overshadowed all other stations; and the commencement, in 1830, 
of the first ghetto Ooouoor left Dimhatti and Kotagiri off the 
main route to the hills. 

For this and other reasons Mr. Tjuwhingtori's "benevolent 
scheme regarding the six bungalows bore little fruit, Surgeon 
De Burgh Birch, writing in 188 5, refers to the bungalows and the 
terraced housej -which he says were ' let at low prices to sick 
officers,' and states that near them then was ' a nice garden, and 
fine lawn-like piece of ground; hounded by a handsome wood ad- 
joining.' But the bungalows apparently became less and less 
used ; and about 1850 what remained of them was sold on 
Mr. TjushTOg ton's account to the well-known Parsi firm of 
Framjes & Go. of! Ootacamunc!. In 1851 , therefore, G-ovemment 
formally withdrew from any Farther connection with tliera. The 
five smaller bungalows had by that time tumbled down. Burton, 
who wrote in 1847, says" that even then 'the unhappy 
cottages, after having been made the subject of many a lengthy 
Rule and Regulation, have at last been suffered to sink into 
artistic masses of broken wall and torn thatch, and the larger 
bungalow now belongs to some Parsee firm established at Oota- 
camund.' He declares that the latter was built by Mr. Lushing- 
ton himself, ' who spared no expense to make it comfortable, as 
the rafters which once belonged to Tippoo Sultan's palace testify,'' 
but Burton was often more picturesque than accurate in his his- 
torical statements ; Mr. Lushington's own minute says he bought 
all six bungalows from the 0. M.S. ; and he is not likely to have 
paid nearly Rs. 5,000 merely for five thatched cottages. 

Framjee &j Co. are shown by official records to have sold the 
two-storeyed bungalow to Captain. Thomas Bromley o£ the 
Bombay Army, and Mrs. "Bromley died there in 1852. She is 
buried at St. Stephen's, Ootacamund, and. her epitaph calls the 

1 Tliis i-eport will be found in Jervis' book, pp. 1.17-23. 

- Qw ««<2 the Blue Mountains, 358. OiichterJony's survey report of 1847 
also states that all btit one of the bungalows were m raras. He wrongly saj-s 
that they were ' built long 1 since by Govei-muonl for the accommodation of 
invalids,' which shows how short official memory is apt to be. 



328 THE NtLOIBXS. 

Dimhatti "bungalow 'hoi- residence Snmmerland, near Kottigerry. 3 
s<Yom Captain Bromley the house passed "back again to Fraiajee 
l% Co. {it is said they took it in payment of money owed them by 
him) Mad in Tunc 1880 the administrators of P. N. Bottlowaliah, 
at his death tit a sole partner in that firm, sold thp bungalow 
and 5| acres of land to the Badagas who now own it. Tho 
kitchen garden, the c fins lawn-like piece of ground ' and the 
' handsome wood adjoining '* have now all "been swept away; the 
remains of the house stand forlornly alone in a field of korali ; and 
they are used, aw has boon said, as a store for potatoes and hay. 

Hnlikal Drug, usually known as ' the Drug,' is a precipitous 
bluff at the very end of the range which borders on the south the 
great ravine which runs up to Coouoor. It stands 6,000 feet 
above tho sea just opposite Coonoor and in sight of it, is crowned 
by the ruins of an old fortress, and is a favourite picnic place. It 
is named from the neighbouring village of llulikal, or ( Tiger's 
stone,' and the story goes that this latter is so called because in 
it a Badaga killed a notorious man-eater which had long been the 
terrop of the countryside. The spot where the beast was buried 
is shown near the Pillaiyar temple to the south of Btilikal village 
and is marked by three stones. "Burton says there used formerly 
to be a stone image of the slain tiger thereabouts. 

The old fort stands on a precipitous sire, three sides of which 
fall almost sheer down to the Coonoor ravine on the one hand and 
the Qoimbatore plains on the other, while the fourth is connected 
with the rest of tho range only by a narrow neck the last part 
of which will not admit more than one man at a time. The great 
natural strength of the position has been ingeniously increased 
by the manner in which defences have been built close along tho 
edge of the precipices and strengthened by projections wherever 
the possibility of an escalade existed; and a high wall fitted with 
embrasures and loopholes has been erected to face the entrance 
from the narrow neck. The fort itself occupies the whole of the 
crest of the bluff, being about 500 yards long and varying from 
f 00 to 200 yards in breadth. It is enclosed by a rough wall of 
stone in mud, wh'eh for the most part is five feet thick. Besides the 
nnm entrance facing the neck, there was originally a gateway 
opposite this leading straight down the steep side of the hill. 

Captain Harkness, describing- the place in 1833, says that "in 
those days the wails of some large native houses were still standino- 
within the fort ; and that though much of it was overgrown with 
forest the trees were still youngs showing that the place had boen 
occupied within comparatively recent tim.es. Almost the wholt 1 
enclosure is now thicHy covered with a tangle of jangle, 



GtAZETCEEB. 329 

The view from it is magnificent. Even Burton, who as a role CHAP. XT. 

has not a single good word for anything on the Nilgiris (he went Coowooa. 
tip there on sick leave and perhaps his complaint was liver), ~ 

appreciates its beauties. He says — 

' The rock upon which we tread falls with an almost perpendicular 
drop o£ four thousand feet into the plains. From this eyrie wo descry 
the housea of Ooimbatore, the windings of the Bhawany, and the 
straight lines of road stretching lika ribbons over the glaring yellow 
surface of the low land. A bluish mi&t clothes the distant hills of 
Malabiir, dimly seen upon the horizon in front. Behind, on the far 
side oE the mighty chasm, the white bunga^nvs of Coonoor glitter 
through the green trees, or disappear behind the veil of fleecy vapour 
which floats along the sunny mountain tops. However hypercntically 
disposed, you can tfnd no fault with this view ; it has "beauty, variety, 
and sublimity to recommend it.' 

Who built the fort is not known. The Badagas usually call it 
Paktisurakottai l and a legend among the people in the plains below 
quoted by Oapt. Cougrevc, 3 says that it is so named because a 
demon called Pakasura or BhakaVara lived there in days gone by. 
He daily exacted from the villagers below a cart-load of provisions 
which, with its driver, he used to devour at a sitting, returning 
the cart to the plains with a kick to be used again next day. 
Bhiraa, the strongest of tb e five famous Pandava brothers, 
happened one day to be near Msttup&laiyam and offered to take 
up the daily cart-load of food. Getting hungry on the way up, he 
devoured the provisions himself, but filled the cart with mud and 
took it on to the demon. The latter was furious and attacked 
Bhima, who, after a tremendous struggle, slew him. With his 
dying breath tho demon pronounced a curse upon the people at 
the foot of the hills who had thus tricked him, declaring that they 
should thenceforth be a prey to the deadly fever from which 
they have suffered ever since. 

The Badagas told Colonel Ouchteiiony 3 that this fort, B£alaik6ta 
near Kalhatti and Udaiya Kaya fort in &6nakarai (the two latter 
of which are referred to below) were built by three of their chiefs, 
who divided the rule of the plateau among them. Another tradition 
says that Haidar Ali built Hulikal Drug and Malaik6ta ; but it 
seems more likely that ho merely occupied and repaired them. 

1 This name is given ia the maps to a slightly higher hill to the south-west. 
Another Badaga name for the Drug ia Gagaaaclm.kkiki5i.tai. Mr. Sowelt'e Litst$ 
of Antiquities (i, 229) erroneously esters these three names aa though they 
belonged to three different places, 

E M.J,L,S ( , xiv, 142. variants of the legend are met with m other parta of 
the Presidency. 

* See hie survey report, M J.L.S., xv, 81, 



830 THH NILGIRIS, 

OHAP. XT, He Txn.d0u.bted.l7 collected revenue on the plateau. Tlie Badagas 
Ooonooe, told Colonel Ouchterloiiy that Ms officers "used to despoil whole 
~ villages of all their grain and force the ryots to carry their own 
plundered property down to Darmayakankottai (near the junction 
of the Bhavahi and the Moyar) ; which he had re-named SharifabaYl 
and where he kept a strong force and a "big magazine. Captain 
Harkness says that Haidar 3 s son Tipu re-named Malaikota 
Hussainabad, and kept there a garrison of 60 or 70 sepoys under 
a killadar named Saiyad Budan which was relieved every two 
months from Dannayakankottai, and that he called Hulikal Drug 
Saiyadabad and had a garrison of 100 men there under a killadar 
named AH Khan. 

Another tradition avers that Tipu used Hulikal Drag as a 
place of confinement for prisoners of war, and in Colonel Meadows 
Taylor's novel Tippoo Sultaun the heroj Herbert Compton, is 
interned there for many months ; spends long hours lying on the 
grass at the edge of the precipice watching the scene below him 
and thinking how his friends would marvel at. the European fluwers 
and climate of the place; tries to escape but : his guide having 
been killed on the way by a tiger 3 is unable to find his way alone 
through the thick jungle which separates him from any civilization ; 
and is at length returned to his friends in a Estate of collapse from 
malaria contracted at the foot of the hills on. his way down. 

There is perhaps little truth in this tradition about prisoners 
of war, the two forts being more likely to have been kept up as 
outposts to overawe the hills and collect the revenue from them. 
This is the view of Captain B. S. Ward in his survey report on 
the hills, and he was a most painstaking enquirer and wrote in 
1823, only twenty-three years after the death of Tipu at the taking 
of Seringapatam. 

K&tfjri is for revenue purposes a hamlet of the Athikarikatti 
mentioned above, but is now a populous and rising Badaga settle- 
ment. It Hes just off the road which runs from the Half "Way 
House on the Ootacamund-Coonoor road southwards to Kulakani- 
bax, and near the point where the Ke"ti stream meets the Kate"ri 
river. Just below this junction the latter forms the well-known 
falls referred to on p. 8 and is there dammed up to make a 
reservoir £ or the water-power required (see p. 313) for the Cordite 
Factory at AravanMd. The dam bears a tablet showing that it 
was constructed in 1903. 

Kengarax: A village of 1,650 people lying seven miles east 
by south of K6tagiri. Its hamlet of Haluru is the H'laiuru of 
Mr, Breaks' Primitive Tribes and Monwmmis of the Mlagiris, where * 



OAZETXBBft. 331 

some good sculptured cromlechs, described and figured "by Hm, CHAP. XV. 
exist. About a mile north oi Kengarai, near the Hiriodiya Oookoojs. 
temple and on the site of old Kengarai, is another well sculptured " ~~ 

cromlech which has not apparently "been noticed by Mm or any 
other writer on the subject. 

A mile beyond the toll-gate on the Bookery ghat is a rock 
called the Todawan parai, or £ Toda's rook.' The story goes that 
a Toda who was a headman of those parts oppressed hie ppople so 
much that he was ultimately sent for to Dann&yakankottai and 
sentenced to be hanged before the fort gate there, and that from 
this rock his wife pronounced a curse against the fort that it 
should become covered with prickly pear. The curse has certainly 
been fulfilled, for the prickly pear at Dannayakankdttai is now 
so thick that it is neoessary to cut one's way into the place. 
The Toda woman's spirit will doubtless be pleased to hear, also, 
that the very site of the fort will probably eventually disappear 
under the water of one of the great JBhavani reservoirs now 
contemplated. 

R£ti (Kaiti) : A village of 4,456 people, lying three miles is 
a straight line south-east of Ootacamund in the well-known valley 
of the same name, which is an open treeless expanse of red soil, 
covered with Badaga cultivation and scrub, along the north- 
western side of which run tjie railway and road from Goonoor to 
Ootacamund. The experimental farm which was started here in 
1830 has already been referred to on p. 202 above. When it 
was closed by order of the Directors in 1836 and the greater part 
of the land belonging to it was returned to the Badagas, Govern- 
ment retained its buildings and the gardens immediately adjoining 
them. These were lent from 1836 to 1839, as a hot-weather 
residence, to General the Marquis de St. Simon, Governor of 
Pondicherry, who lived there for some time. 

In 1840 Lord Elphinstone, then Governor of Madras, bought 
the property for Rs. 550 l and also acquired, on a ninety-nine 
years 5 lease from the Badagas, some land round about it. He 
frequently resided there, preferring it to Ootacamund owing to 
its greater privacy and milder climate, and on the site of the old 
homestead he built an excellent house (the furnishing of which is 
stated in Bailde's book to have been planned by Count D'Orsay) 
and surrounded it with a beautiful garden. 

In 1845 he sold the whole property to Mr. G. J. Casamajor, a 
Judge of the High Court who had just resigned the Civil Service? 

1 This figure and somes of the facts below arc taken from Sir Frederick 
* Price's book already frequently cited. 



83$ THE NliaiBIfit, 

CHAP. XV, for Es. 15,300. Mr. Casantajor laid out another Rs. 10,000 in 
Coonqoe. alterations and lived there for some years. He spent much of has 
time in evangelistic and educational -work among the Badagas, 
opening a school for them in the house and learning Oanarese §o 
that he might translate the Gospel into that language. He died 
there in. May 1S49 and is buried at St. Stephen's, Oatacamund. 
It is said 1 that at one time he had wished to "be buried in the 
little wood by the house, through which led one of his favourite 
walks, but that lie afterwards changed his mind because he was 
afraid that the Badagas, who were very devoted to him, mig'ht 
turn his grave into a place of worship. On his death it was found 
that he had "bequeathed the greater part of his property to the 
Basel Mission, in which he had recently taken much interest and 
to which he had given the money which enabled it to start its first 
operations at Kotagiri. Ho had wished that the Keti property 
should he sold and the interest on the money so- realised be 
spent on the mission ; but as no purchaser for it could be found 
it was turned into the head-quarters of the mission (which had 
already rented a house close by the Kiievi falls) and all its beautiful 
furniture and fittings were disposed of. It is still the mission's 
head-quarters on the Nilgiris, and in buildings round ahout it are 
a lower secondary school and a "bny-j' orphanag-e. 

Close by the mission's property was established; in March 1902, 
a camp for 1,000 Boer prisoners of war. The temporary buildings 
in this, which had mud walls and galvanized iron roofs, cost some 
3$ lakhs. The prisoners were allowed to walk about the gbit road 
and the Wellington bazaar, where their distinctive yellow pagris 
were a familiar sight, but were permitted to enter Ootacamund, 
Ooonoor and Wellington itself only in special circumstances. 
Thej were repatriated in August 1902, and in October the 
btdldings were dismantled and the saleable materials sold. The 
mud walls still remain to mark the site. 

Kodaildd : Six miles in a straight line north by east of 
K6tagiri; population 978. The name seems properly to be 
E6dinadu, or •' the end nad.' The country round about it differs 
charmingly from the rest of the east of the plateau, often consist- 
ing of grass land with scattered sholas, like that to the west of 
Ootacamund, instead of bare red soil and Badaga cultivation. 
The K6dan&d tea estates, whose well known trade-mark is K.T.15., 
were started in 1864-66 by Mr. B. F. Phillips, who bought about 
1,000 acres of land there, mostly covered, with splendid forest 

x Bsv. G, Wielan&'a fflfty years' work of the Basel Mission oh the JS&lgiris 
(KM. Press, Mangalore, 1896), IS. 



(UZETTEBfi. 3SB 

-which, to the disgust of local sportsmen, lie proceeded to fell CHAP. XV. 
forthwith. The views from this corner of the plateau across Coonoob. 
the Moy&r valley and away to the Satyamangalam. hills on the 
east are some of the finest on the plateau. 

Konakar&i: lies 2£ miles east-south-east of .Kotagfri; 
population 1,278. Some two miles south-east of it, within the 
Tullochard estate j in a place known as Kotetu-hdda, or 'the fort 
flat/ He the remains of the old fort Udaiya Haja ICota referred 
to in the account of Hulikal Drug- on. p. 329. This has gone "by 
several names : the popular pronunciation is Udriyabuta ; Captain 
Harlcness cails it 'AtraCota;' Captain Congreve, ( Adi-Baer- 
Oottay ' (and he founds an ingenious theory on this mis- spelling) ; 
and Mr. Griyg i Udiar^ya Kota.' Except for a few mounds and 
hollows, a hit ofstone-in-mud rampart and signs of gateways on 
the eastern and western sides, no trace of it now remains ; hut 
Harkness (1832) and Congreve (1847) have both given descrip- 
tions of it as it was in their time. r l he latter x says it is — 

' Situated on a small table-land and sequestered by hills clothed 
with jungle. Th.e potation is strung, being- nearly environed with a 
morass and stream running along the channel of a deep fissure in the 
ground. The remains of the fort indicate it was originally constructed 
of earth in some places, and in other parts o£ uncemented stimes. In 
shape it is an oblong, the longer side measuring one hundred paces, 
tho shorter fifty-three, and consisting of a double line of worhs one 
within the other, the space between the two occupying twenty-five 
paces in breadth. The romains of two square towers are visible 
adjoining the outer line, one seated on the west face and the other on 
the south j the gateway probably ran under the tormer. 

"Within the inner walla I found some remains of stone buildings } 
consisting of large blocks and flags un wrought, and two upon which 
the marks of the chisel were apparent . . . Fragments of orna- 
mented pottery were dispersed around. 5 

One of. the chiselled stones is still lying there and seems to 
have "bean used for pounding grain. Local accounts say that the 
materials of the fort were utilized by a former owner of the 
estate within which it stands for the construction of a bungalow 
and out-houses on his property} and were afterwards carted to 
R6bagiri and used in building the house in that station called 
f Caberfeigh.' 

Badaga tradition gives a fairly detailed account of Udaiya 
It says he was a chief who collected the taxes for the 
Ummattur B&jas referred to on p. 93 and that he had also a fort 

1 1LJ.L.S„iit.121. 



334 THE OTLGIRIS. 

CHAP. XT. at Xullanthorai, near Sirunmgai, the remains of which are still to 
Coonoou. be seen.. He married a woman of Wetlingi, hamlet of Nedugula, 

named iluddu Gravm-i, "but she died "by the wrath of the gods 

because she persuaded him. to celebi'ate the annual fire-walking 
festival in front of the fort, instead of at the customary spot by 
the Mahalingasvami temple about half a mile off, and after her 
death he moved to the Malaikota near KalliatU which is referred 
to below. Nellialam tradition adds that he was an officer of the 
forefathers of the present Nellialam Arasu. Bound the Mahalinga- 
svilmi temple, it is said, was once a populous village named 
Gadihada and paddy was raised in the adjoining flat. Cut on a 
group of boulders there, are some modern Canarese letters of 
which no sense can be made. 1 

Fear the fort are the only kistvaens on the hills. They have 
been mentioned on p. 98. Before one of them (that on the 
Konakatti hill) the Badagas of Jakkaneh'i annually sacrifice a 
buffalo calf. The actual killing is done by a Kurumba. 

About two miles south-west of Konakarai, in the hamlet of 
Totanalli, are the so-called ' Caves of Belliki/ on the walls of 
which are certain scratches which Captain Oongreve enlisted in 
support of his theories that Buddhists or Jams once held sway on 
the plateau. These i Caves ' are merely overhanging rocks ; and 
the scratches (as may be seen from the photographs of them 
in plates hXXX to LXXXII of Breeks' hook) are hardly of 
historical interest. 

Kotagiri : Bighteen miles by road east of Ootacamnnd and 
twelve from Ooonoor. Population 5 3 100, which makes it the 
third largest place in the district "but includes the people of 
several outlying hamlets. The name is properly Kotar-Mri, or 
! the street (or line) of Kotas ! ; old papers often spell it Kotar- 
gherry and there is still a Kota settlement in the place. The 
tahsildar of Ooonoor holds fortnightly sittings at the police- station 
to dispose of criminal cases arising in the neighbourhood. The 
place contains a station of the Basel Mission, a chattram, a dis- 
pensary, a market and a gorgeous new mosque constructed by 
the Palni Muhamtnadans who do most of the trade in it. 

Kotagiri lies about 1 ,000 feet lower than Ootacamnnd (the 
Basel Mission chapel is 6,511 feet above the sea) and is protected 
by she Dodabetta range from the violence of the south-west 
monsoon. It consequently possesses the climatic advantages of 
Ooonoor (already mentioned) with the added superiority that it 

1 Inaccurate transcripts of them appeal in Congreve's paper (M.JJLS,, sbr m 
141) and Bieaks (plate XhlY A). 



GAZETTEER. 385 

does not suffer from Coonoor's mists and is more "bracing. It is, CHAP. XV. 
however, off the main route, and tlie journey np to it from Coosooa. 
Mettupllaiyani "by its own gh.it ol twenty-one miles one in 
seventeen (winch is usually performed in a rickshaw) is a long 
one. The station stands at the head of a fine re, vino running down 
towards Metfcapalaiyam and is scattered over a piece of steeply 
undulating country (almost bare of trees and thus in great con- 
trast to Ootacainund and Ooonoor) where almost all the European 
houses staud by themselves, each oh a knoll of its own. Several 
of them command "beautiful views down to the plains and the 
Lambton's Peak range in Coimbatore. The place "boasts a hotel 
which is open in the hot months, but no travellers' bungalow. 

It was at Dimhatti, just north of K6ta,giri (seep. 325), that 
the first European visitors to the plateau settled ; and it was to 
Dimhatti and K6tagiri that the first ' road ' to the hills was made 
in 1820-23. Hough's Letters on the ~JS!eilgherrie$ } written in 1826, 
says that several "bungalows had then "been "built there (they were 
probably very temporary affairs) and describes in detail the journey 
up the ghat from Sirumugai. At Arivenu, the first village 
down the present ghat from Kotagiri, was then a rest-house which 
had ortoe "been a bungalow built for his own use by Lieutenant 
Evans Macpherson, the maker of the road of 1820 and. ..the builder 
of c Clnny Hall 5 at Ootacamund. By 1847, according to Ouchter- 
lony's survey report, there were fifteen European houses in the place 
(the same number as in Coonoor) but latterly the comparative 
inaccessibility of the station has counteracted its climatic advan- 
tages ; the decline of the coffee industry has hampered it ; and it 
has grown but slowly. Plans for supplying it with a piped water- 
supply from the Long'wood shola at a cost of Es. 40,000 have been 
elaborated but shelved for want of funds. 

Apparently the oldest of the existing houses in Kotagiri is 
that which is now called ' The Avenue.' The site of this was 
originally giunted to Mr, B. H. Olive, who was Head Assistant 
and Sub-Collector of Coimbatore from 1822 to 1827. In the 
latter year he went Home on leave and sold the place, which was 
then known as £ Olive's House/ to Colonel Haakwood, In 1831 
the latter disposed of it to Greneral J. S. Ifraser, who in 1856 sold it 
again to Lieutenant Fraser (no relation), a naval officer. In 1861, 
at which time it was called { Hillwood,' it passed to Colonel Herbert 
Murray-Aynsley of the Madras Cavalry, who gave it its present 
name and sold it in IS71 to Captain John Craig of the Ordnance 
department. The latter gave it ho its present proprietor, Mr. 
W, 0. Johnston, in 1875. 



336 the miGiaiB. 

OHA.P. XV". Alter 'The Avenue' the oldest house in. the place is ' Kota 

°°^l° a ' Hall/ which stands in a beautiful situatiou looking' down the 
gbit. This was "bnilt by Mr. James Thomas, who was Collector 
of Ooimhatore between 1830 and 1832 1 and made a new hat 
steep road to Kotagiri direct from Mettupalaiyam. 2 Abont the 
same time Ma brother, Mr. E. B, Thomas, -who was Head 
Assistant and Sub-Collector of Coimbatore from i 880 to 1833, 
built the next house, Belmont, which in 1853 became the property 
of the Ouchterlony family. It was perhaps in one or th^se two 
houses that Sir Frederick Adamj then Governor of Madras, stayed 
in 1836. The Kurkttru of -Time 2nd in that year 3 remarked malici- 
ously: 'Recent letters from the Neilg-herries mention that Sir 
Frederick Adam is much broken in health and very much 
out of humour; that he re -ides a good deal in the most retired 
way at Kotagherry ; takes no groat exercise and transacts no 
great business.' In 1840 Bishop Spencer, then Bishop or Madras, 
bought Kota Hall, to which he made additions. In 1 847 it passed 
to General J. T. Gibson of the Madras Army and after his death 
in 1H51 to his son-in-law, Mvjor Briggs. In 1855 it was let to 
Lord Oalhousie, who had been sent to the Nilgiris by his medical 
advisers and was accompanied by his daughter Lady Susan 
JR&msay. He was apparently there m April and again in August, 
September and October. He is popularly, but erroneously, 
supposed to have signed there the order hr the annexation of 
Oudh. The same story is told of Walthamstow, the house ho 
stayed in at Ootacarnund. Lady Graining went to Kota Hall for a 
few days in May 1858 and one of her letters calls it 'the place 
Lord Dalhousie chiefly lived, at, and liked most of all, 5 but says 
that by then ' the doing up expended by Lord Dalhousie is in 
decadence, though the house will do very well to live in for a 
-week. The view is really "beautiful.' In August and September 
1858 Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras, stayed at Kota Hall 
for ahout a month to recoup from a sudden and severe illness 
contracted at Ootacamnacl ; a?id in July 18o*S Sir William 
DenisoUj another Governor, was there for a few days. 

In this latter year the property was sold to General Gallon ; in 
1864 to Mr. (afterwards Sir "William) Bohinson (who added 28 
acres to, and otherwise much improved, it) ; in 1868 to Mr. 
Q. 3. Forbes ; in 1877 to Mr. Gordon W. Forbes ; and afterwards 

1 The Govornraenti grant for the land (20 caivniea) was not made until 
, 1838, but the House irmsL have been built before that, 
s Jerris, p. 134. 
* See Asiatic Journal, xmL X85, 



QA2EITTEER. 337 

in turn to Messrs. Stanes & Co. and the present owner, Colonel OHAf.XV. 

Hutching, whoso wife's sisters now occupy it. Ooowook. 

♦ . — * 

Next to Kota Hall, the oldest house in Kotagifi is ' Corsley. 5 

paptain Frederick Maoleocl hought the nucleus of the site in 1832 
from the Kotas for Bs. 2-5 and obtained a Grovernruent grant for 
it in 1838. On this he built a large wooden house (said to have 
been made in Calicut and sent up in pieces) which was first 
called 'Angelica Bouse' and subsequently ( The Ship,' 'Steep 
Jliir and ' Prospect Hill.' After changing hands several times, 
the property passed in 1873 to Colonel Vine, who sold it in 1880 
to Mr. F. R. Griffith, who named it c Corsley ' and to whose family 
it still belongs. Ho planted in its grounds the wonderful collec- 
tion of fare plants and. trees winch still thrives there, and added 
to it the property variously known as ' The Dove's Nest/ ' The 
Haunted House ' and ' Trag-edy Hall,' In this latter house died in 
1848 Theodora Mary, daughter of Bishop Spencer and wife of 
Hatley Frere, G.S., 1 and her tombstone, which bears only her 
initials and the date, is in the Kotagiri cemetery. No servants 
would afterwards stay m the house, which they declared was 
haunted, and it is now in ruins and overgrown with a wild tangle 
of jungle. The 3871 map of the district marks c Mote Castle * as 
one of the chief houses in Kotagiri, but the building so called;, in 
derision, was a little one-roomed construction near the bazaar 
which belonged to the Rev. F. Metz of the Basel Mission. 

While General Gibson was at Kota Hall lie began the 
construction, from his own money, of the little church called 
Christ Church. At his death in 1851 the walls were only a few 
feet high, but he had left funds for the work with his son-in-law 
Major Briggs, and the building was eventually completed there- 
with. He is buried just outside the Communion rails and a tablet 
to his memory is built into the wall. It is said 2 that he selected 
the unfortunate site which the church occupies (at the bottom of a 
deep hollow and far from most, of the European houses) because 
he wished to be able to see it from the windows of Kota HalJ. 
Far better sites (such as the hill above the Blue Mountain Hotel) 
were available. In 180-4 Major (then General) Briggs made over 
the church to Government on the condition (among others) that 
it should never be consecrated, so that clergymen of all denomi- 
nations could hold services in it. In the same year Government 

1 Mr, J, 3. Cotton's Xnscrvptimis on Ma&rat, tamjis. 

s 3?ov this and sonic other particulars about K6iagiri I am. indebted to 
Mies M. B. L. Oocskbum, whosa father, Mr. M. 0. Ooekbum, H.U.S., was the ftrst 
t Inrapean to settle permanently in the place, 

48 



SS8 THE NIIjGIHIS. 

CHAP. XV", presented it with a bell, and they have since kept it in repair. 
Cookooe. Proposals to build a new church on a more convenient site ha^e 
recentlj' (1906) "been negatived. 

Tlie European, cemetery lies at the other end of the station oa 
a spur overlooking- Dimbatti. It is said that this odd and out- 
of-the-way sits was fixed by the accident that in the very early 
days of the station an officer who had pitched his tents there died 
and was buried in front of them. Subsequent graves were placed 
alongside his, and tlie spot thus became the recognized cemetery. 
The curliest tombstone is dated 1822 and is to the memory of 
Mr. E. JHL Crntteiiden, .fudge of Trlehinopoly_, to whom there ie 
also a tablet in St. John's Church in that station, Other graves are 
those of Mr. M. D. Cockburn, M.C.S. (brother of Henry Cockburn, 
Lord Chief Justice of Edinburgh), who died in 1869, of his wife 
Catherine (after whom St, Catherine's Falls were named and who 
died in 1879) and of several members of their family. 

Largely owing- to them, K6tagiri was one of the earliest 
centres of coffee and tea-planting on the plateau. Mr. M.. I). 
CocVbnrn and his brother-in-law Mr. Frank Lascelles put down 
coffee plants (obtained from Ceylon and Naduvattam) in the 
ICanoavehstti a,nd Hardathorai ostates in the forties of the last 
century, and Miss M. B. L. Cockburn introduced the first tea on 
Allporta estate in I860. 

Kotagiri suffered slightly from the gold-mining mania of 
1879-82, the Kotagiri Reefs Co. and two other companies opening 
up supposed lodes below Horashola and in Naduhatti on the 
bridle-path to Coonoor. The undertakings were all failures. 

In Jakkaneri, a hamlet to the south of Kotagiri, are the 
sculptured cromlechs alluded to on p. 99. Near them formerly 
stood, it is said, the villages of Doddu.ru and Jakkatakambni, 
now vanished. In the heart of the Banagudi sh<5la, not far from 
the 'Bod&uru group' of cromlechs, is an odd little shrine to 
Earair&ya, consisting of a mined stone hut surrounded by a low 
wall within which is a tiny cromlech, some sacred water-worn 
stones and sundry little pottery images representing a tiger, a 
mounted man and some dogs. These keep in memory, it is said, 
a Badaga who was slain in combat with a tiger; and annually ii 
festival is held at which new images are planted there, vows are 
paid, a Knrumba innkes; fire by friction and burns incense, 
throws sanctified wa'ter over the numerous goats brought up to 
be sacrificed to see if they- will shiver in the manner always held 
necessary in sacrificial victims, and then slays, one after the other, 
those which have shown themselves duly qualified. 



GAZETTEER. -S3$ 

A fire-walking festival also takes place annually at the CHAP. XV. 
Jadayasvami temple in Jakkan.ori under iho auspices o£ a Siva- Cooxooa, 
cjiari Badaga. it seems to have originally had some connection 
with agricultural prospects, as a young tail is made to go partly 
aci-oss the fire-pit before the other devotees, and the owners of 
young cows which have had their first calves during the year 
take precedence of others in the ceremony and bring offerings 
of milk which are sprinkled over the burning embers. 

Kulakailibai (the termination -Tsambai denotes a Kurumba 
village) is for administrative purposes a hamlet of Melur, eight 
.miles as the crow flies south-west of Ooonoor. It is an important 
coffee centre; aud midway between it and Melur, in the valley of 
the deserted Tudur village mentioned above (p. 316), is the 
well-known Terraiiria tea estate. The falls and hill here have 
already been mentioned in Chapter I. 

M^lur, a village of 2,947 people, eight miles south-west of 
Coonoor, is widely known for its firo-walking festival, which 
is one of the most elaborate on all the plateau. It takes place 
on the Monday after the JLirch new moon, just before the culti- 
vation season begins, and is attended by Badagas from all over 
Merktmad. The inhabitants of certain villages (six in number 
who are supposed to be the descendants of an early Badaga 
named Guruvajja, have first, however, to signify through their 
(rottukars, or headmen, that the festival may take place • and 
the G-ottrxkars choose three, five, or seven men to walk through 
the fire. On the day appointed the fire is lit by certain Badaga 
priests and a Kurumba. The men. chosen by the Grottnkars then 
bathe, adorn themselves with sandal, do obeisance to the Udayas 
of XJdayarhatti near Keti, who arc specially invited over and 
feasted ; pour into the adjacent stream milk from cows which have 
calved for the first time during the year ; and, in the afternoon, 
throw more milk and some flowers from the Mahalingasvimi 
temple into the fire-pit and then walk across it. Earth is next 
thrown on the embers and they walk across twice more. A 
general feast closes the ceremony and a&xi day the first plough- 
ings are clone, the Kurumba sowing the first seeds and the 
priests the nexfe lot. 

.Finally a net is brought ; the priest of the temple, standing 
over it, puts up prayers for a favourable agricultural season ; two 
fowls are thrown into it and a pretence is made of spearing them ; 
and then it is taken and put across some game path and some 
wild animal (a sambhar if possible 1 ) is driven into it, slain and 
divided among the villagers. This same custom of annually 
killing a sambhar is also observed, it may be here noted, at other 



340 THE NILGIfilS. 

CHAP. XV. villages on the plateau, and in 1888 and 1894 special orders were " 
Coonook, passed to permit of its "being done during the close season. 

Latterly disputes about precedence in the matter of walking 
through the fire at Melur have "been carried as far as the civil 
courts, and the two factious celebrate the festival separately m* 
alternate years. 

RangaSTdmi Peak : A conical peak 5,8^5 feet above the 
sea which stands prominently forth on the extreme eastern limit- 
of the plateau and is a. well-known landmark from the plains. 
It is the most sacred hill on all the plateau. Hindu legend says 
that the god Rangasvamiused to live at Karaimadai on th« plains 
between Mettupalaiyam and Coimbatore, but quarrelled with his 
wife and so came and lived here alone. In proof of the story two 
footprints on the rock not far from Arakod village below the 
Peak are pointed, out. This, however, is probably an invention 
designed to save the hill folk from the toiisome journey to 
Rangasvami's ear -festival at Karaimadai, which used once to be 
considered incumbent upon them. In some places the Badagas 
and l£6tas have gone even further and established ' Rangasvami 
Bettus ' of their own, handy for their own particular villages. 

On the real Kangasvdmi "Peak are two rude walled enclosures 
sacred to the god Eanga and his consort, and within these are 
votive offerings (chiefly iron lamps and the notched sticks used 
as weighing" machines) and two stones to represent the deities. 
The hereditary pujari is an Irula, aud on the day fixed by the 
Badagas for the annual feast, he arrives from his hamlet near 
Nan-dipuram, bathes in a pool below the summit, and marches to 
the top shouting ' G-ovinda ! G-ovinda ! ' The cry is taken up 
with, wild enthusiasm by all those present, and the whole crowd, 
which includes Badagas, Iralas and Enrumbas, surrounds the 
enclosures while the Irula priest invokes the deities by blowing 
his conch and beating his drum, and pours oblations over, and 
decorates with flowers, the two stones which represent them. 
That night two stone basins on the summit are filled with ghee 
and lighted, and the glare is visible for miles around. The 
ceremonies close with prayers for good rain and fruitfulness 
among the flocks and herds, a wild dance by the Irula, and the 
boiling (called hongal, the same word &Bpor/gal the Tamil agri-. 
cultural feast) of much rice in milk. Ordinarily the Badagas do 
not boil milk, but drink it cold. About a mile from Arakod is 
an overhanging rock 1 called the hodai-kal, or 'umbrella stone/ 

1 There is no ' cave ' ay stated in the Cotmbaiore District Manual, ii, 4>2 j 7 ) 
mi3 "Sir. Seweli's informants misled him when they Pairl (Lists of Antiquities, i, 
216) thai; the e temple ' on tiha peak contained mserijjtfoas* 



GAZOTEEXR. 341 

under which, is found a whitish clay. This clay is used hj the CHAi\ XV. 
Irulas for making' the Vaishnava marks on their foreheads at. Cooivoos. 
this festival. ~ 

North hj west of Ttangasvaini's Peak is Rangasvami's Pillar, 
an Extraordinary isolated rook pillar which rises in solitary gran- 
deur to a height of some 400 feet and has sheer sides which must- 
be quite unclimbable. 

Wellington : Is a cantonment about 1-^- miles north of 
Cooncor, situated near the road to Gotacamund on one of the 
numerous spurs of the Dodabetta range 6,100 feet above the sea. 
It contains 4,793 inhabitants. Its climate and general appearance 
resemble those of its neighbour Coonoor, hut it does not get the 
lather's frequent mists. Though it was originally a bare spot, 
it has now been thickly planted with Australian and other exotic 
trees. It is the head-quarters of the Colonel on the Staff com- 
manding' the Southern Brigade of the Ninth (Secunderabad) 
Division, and also contains a Convalescent Depot and part of a 
"British Infantry regiment. The station is in charge of the 
military authorities and possesses a Cantonment Magistrate. 

One of the first things which struck the earliest European 
visitors to the hills was the desirability of quartering British regi- 
ments there, especially those newly arrived from Home, in order 
to obviate the large amount of sickness which usually resulted 
in them from residence on the plains during the hot weather. 
As early as 1832 Dr, Eaikie brought the matter forcibly to 
the notice of the Medical Board. 1 In 1838 Dr. Birch 3 again 
referred to the matter and proposed that the troops should 
be cantoned away beyond Avalanche in what was then known as 
the Long Valley on the Sispara road. Luckily this suggestion 
was not adopted; as during the south-west monsoon no wetter 
and more bleak situation could probably be found on the plateau. 
At the end of 1839 Lord Elphinstone proposed that a regi- 
ment should be stationed at Ootacamund, but the Government of 
India would not hare it. 3 The Marquis of Tweeddale, who 
became Governor in 184^ held views similar to those of Lord 
Mphinstono and suggested that a sum of £45,000, which the 
Government of India proposed to lay out on barracks at Trichi- 
nopoly^ should be expended orj similar accommodation on the 
Hilgiris. Major. Ouohtei'lony, then engaged on the survey of the 
hills, pointed out to him the Wellington site, and in 1847 She 

1 His report printed on. pp. Ill 8. oC Jervis' book. 

2 M,J.L,8, viii, 89. 

3 A history of the proposal wiH be found in Sir S\ Price's book- 



342 THE XILGIKIS. 

CHAP. XV, Government of India agreed to "build temporary "barracks there. 
Cookoob. Nothing However was actually done for several years. In those 
days, when there was no railway and transport animals aould 
only "be obtained from Mysore, Salem and Comibatore, there were 
serious strategic objections to the location of troops on the hills ; 
and it was also feared that the men would get malaria when 
marching up, especially through the feverish jungle on the 
Mysore side. 

In 1849 plans for permanent, instead of temporary, barracks 
were at last drawn up and in 1850-51 a scheme for a Convalescent 
Depdt was sanctioned "by the Home authorities and work was 
begun. The statiou was at that time called Jakkatalla (or 
JackataLlah) from the Badaga village of that name to the north 
of it, and in 1852 Sir Richard Armstrong, then Commander- 
in-Chief, recommended that the name should he changed to 
Wellington, in honour of the Iron Duke, who from the first had 
evinced an interest in the establishment of a sanitarium on the 
Nilgiris, which he must have seen from afar in his youth, and had 
expressed his unqualified approbation of the scheme. Sir Henry 
Pottiuger, the then Governor, thought the name would be un- 
intelligible to the natives ; but in 1860 Sir Charles Treveiyan 
heLI that ( this interesting military establishment could not be 
connected with a more appropriate name ' than Wellington, 
and ordered it to he so called thenceforth. About the same time 
he proposed to the Secretary of State that Gotaeamund should in 
future be called Victoria, but the suggestion seems to have met 
■with no response. 

The barracks were begun in 1852 and completed in 1860. 
Another block was added in 1876. The total cost, including all 
outbuildings, etc., was £167,000 and they contain accommodation 
for 54- non-commissioned officers and b20 men. They are sub- 
stantial and of the best materials, and the water-supplies and 
sanitary and cooking arrangements are excellent. Besides the 
Convalescent Dep6t, they now accommodate a British Infantry 
battalion which supplies detachments to Calicut, Malappuram 
and Carmanore in th e Malabar district, The native bazaar 
stands some distance away oh the other bank of a stream which 
runs beside the Co on o or- Ootaeamund road and is crossed .by 
( the Waterloo Bridge,' better known nowadays as < the Black 
Bridge/ a tarred wooden construction. 

Above the barracks are the officers' bungalows, conspicuous 
among thera being the Commandant's on the top of the hill above 
' the fountain/ a point where half a- dozen roads meet. Below 



GAZETTEEB. 343 

and west of this is a small lake, along tlie embankment of which chap. XT. 
runs, a road to Coonoor, and east and south of it is a deep ravine, Coonoor, 
which separates Wellington from Coonoor, and at the "bottom of 
which is the race-course. 

The Waterloo Bridge, over which passes the road which runs 
from Wellington to join the Ootacamund- Coonoor road, was 
first Imilt in 1858, but collapsed before completion on 26th 
November of that year owing to a combination of heavy rain and 
bad work. Acrimonious recriminations followed among the 
various officers responsible ; and in the end the Executive Sngiaeev 
was sent back to military duty. An iron girder bridge was 
nest designed, but there were no funds ; and in ! 87S the present 
wooden construction was put up. In. 1855, when the project of 
constructing' a bridge there was first mooted, it was suggested 
that a high dam should be thrown across the stream and the 
road taken along the top of that. When the bridge collapsed 
Sir Charles Trevelyan revived this proposal, but the cost was 
prohibitive. The idea of forming a reservoir at this point has 
recently been revived in connection with the scheme for utilizing 
the water of this or other streams for the electrification of the 
Nilgiri railway. 

The existing lake was made, it is said, by Lieutenant- 
Colonel Bich&rds, the Joint Magistrate of Wellington, largely by 
the labour of convicts in the Jail there, about 1875. 

The race-course was due to the energy of the same officer, 
and was chiefly made from public subscriptions. The stream 
which now runs along the western side of it formerly ran through 
the middle of the hollow in which it lies, and had to be diverted. 
The local Badagas say that the Todas had a U dairy there, and a 
funeral place near the barracks. Their mand, as lias already been 
stated on page 334, was near the present Ooonoor Club ; and 
the Badagas had a village near the Commandant's house. The 
Todas were moved to Battumand near the Ballia reserve, and the 
Badagas to the neighbouring village of Banthumi ; and com- 
pensation is still paid annually to both of them for their land. 
The race-course is extremely picturesque, wooded hills rising 
above three sides of it, but is so small that the turns make 
racing' dangerous in wet weather. Meeting's were regularly held 
there until 1905. They took place just before the May meeting 
at Ootacamund, so that the same horses could compete in both, 
and all Ootacamund used to go clown to them. In 1905 the 
course was severely damaged by floods in the stream already 



MA- THE NILOIHIS. 

GHAP. XV. mentioned, and this and other causes led to the abandonment of 
Coonoor. the meeting, which shows no signs of "being revived. a 

The Anglican church at Wellington, St. George's, was built 
in 1886. Tt stands on a commanding site and will hold 400 per- 
sons. The question oE erecting a place of worship in the canton- 
ment was first raised as early as 1854, hut as the plans for the 
"barracks included two rooms for use for divine service and the 
Coonoor church had just "been finished the matter was dropped. 
In 1863, in 1873j and again in 1882. the subject was revived — 
strong replies entations as to the imsuitability of an ordinary 
barrack room for public worship being made by the Chaplains — 
and at length in 1885 funds were found for the work. The 
building was designed by Major Morant, E.E., who had built 
the chancel at Coonoor and was now Consulting Architect to 
Government, and was finished in 1886. The estimate was 
Es, 38.16*1, but the work cost Es. 47,8X0 and there was trouble in 
consequence. The present bell, came from St. Stephen's at 
Ootacamund. It was not required when the new tubular hells 
were put up there in J 894, and was transferred to this church, 
the existing bell in which was reported to be ' very small, very 
cracked, and giving a most insignificant sound which can scarcely 
be heard at the barracks. ' The organ, which cost £400, was 
obtained in 1902 from public subscriptions . 

The Eoman Catholic church; St. Joseph's, was also designed 
by Major (then Colonel) Morant. The estimate (Es. 30,526) was 
sanctioned in 1886 and the building was completed at a cost of 
Es. 33,576 (including furniture) in 1888, the Eoman Catholics 
Chaplain himself carrying out the work under the supervision of 
the Executive Engineer. 

Tho Cantonment cemetery was opened in 1852 and enlarged in 
187". In 1854- and 1855 no less than 44 officers and men of the 
74th Highlanders, a wing of which was then stationed at Wel- 
lington, were buried there ; Baikie's Neilfjh&rries (second edition, 
1857) says that, with exceptions, these deaths were due to 
disease contracted before the regiment came up, but another 
account states that the men had been brought up to help in 
building the barracks and were quartered in unhealthy temporary 
huts, which .had been hastily constructed for their accommodation 
and had no proper floors. Within the Cordite factory is a tomb- 
stone to nine men of the 33rd Regiment who died in 1870-77. 



345 



OOTACAMUND TALUK. 



Is the largest of the three Nilgiri taluks, and corresponds 
almost exactly with the old divisions of Tddanid and Kimdaliniid. 
thus occupying the northern; north-western and south-western 
portions of the plateau. In addition, it includes the tract at the 
northern, foot of the plateau in the valley of the Moyar. Its 
exact limits may be gathered from the map at the end of this 
volume and statistics regarding it appear in the separate Appen ■ 
dix. The more interesting places in it are the following : — 

Anaikatti '. A hamlet of Ebbanad situated in the jungle 
of the Moyar valley. The experiments in mule -breeding made 
t&ere have been referred to on p. 29. The stream which flows past 
it tumbles over a pretty fall on the slopes of Birmukku (Bimaka) 
Mil. The Badagas call the spot Kuduraihalla, or c the ravine of 
the horse/ and say the name was given it because a JBadaga — 
covered with shame at finding that his wife gave him first sort 
rice but his brother, who lived with them, only second sort — 
committed suicide by jumping his horse clown the fall. ^ The 
Badagas also say a chief named Kamaraya on.ce lived at Asiai- 
katli and built an anient, now washed away, across the stream, 
but he is a shadowy personality of whom little seems to be 
■remembered. 

Avalanche I A spot at the foot of the Kundahs (thirteen 
miles from Ootacamund by bridle-path and sixteen by the old 
Sispara road, which latter is practicable thus far for lightly- 
laden country carts) at which are a local fund travellers' bun- 
galow, a chat-tram and the quarters o£ two forest guards. The 
bungalow is a favourite point for trips from Ootacamund and 
consists {see the separate Appendix) of a central room with 
fireplace, two bedrooms with bathrooms, a "kitchen and a stable 
with four stalls, is in charge of a maty find is furnished with 
chairs, tables, cots, baths, cooking kit, crockery and cutlery. But 
visitors must bring their owe bedding and, as there is no village 
at the place, every kind of supplies. The bungalow is visible 
from several points near Ooty, notably the hill above Porcupine 
Shdla and tho upper part of the Havelock Road. It stands at the 
foot of a big sh.61a on the south side of a wide and beautiful valley, 
and looks across to the long line of Bettumand {alias Himigala) 
•Jrillj up the wrinkles of which oHzob straggling sholas and -which 



CHAP. XV. 

OOTACAMUNB 



S46 THE NILGIBI6. 

CHAP. sv. was known of old, from the numbers of ibex which haunted its 

(Mtacamdnd. cliffs, as Chamois Hill. This separates the Avalanche Valley from 
its northern neighbour the Emerald Valley. On the top of it is a 
thick bed of magnetic iron ore, running east and west. 

Avalanche gets its name from a big landslip which occurred 
about 1824 on the eastern face of the steep rocky height south- 
west of the bung-alow, which was known in consequence to the 
early residents on the plateau as Avalanche Hill "but is called 
Kudika'du Hill in the maps, '' There was a constant fall of rain 
for eight days, with heaving rolling thunder; during all which 
time the *vinds were so tempestuous, and the country so enveloped 
in darkness, that none dared stir from their homes. When at 
length the weather cleared up, they discovered the tremendous 
havoek that had been made ; and that the Pavhk, overflowing its 
bants in every direction, was surcharged with the wrecks and. 
fragments of the mountain's side.' 1 In 1833, when Baikie wrote 
his account of the ISTilgirid, the great scar made in the hill-side by 
the slip was still fresh, and was plainly visible from Ootacamund, 
and Dr. Benza describes the slip in his account of the geology of 
the locality written in 1836 ; but since then Nature, with gentle 
hand, has so effectively healed the wound that all remembrance of 
it has almost "been lost and the site of it is only revealed by the 
smaller size of the trees which have sprung up upon the Mien 
masses of earth. It comes into view as soon as one crosses the 
highest part of the grassy ridge which runs across the left front 
of the bungalow. It was evidently a well-known landmark in 
the early years of the last century, for Captain Murray, the officer 
in charge of the Pioneers who were cutting the Sispara ghat in 
1832, dates his official letters 2 from £ Foot of the Avalanche' 
and ( Camp at the foot of Avalanche Hill' Mr Grrigg seems 
to have overlooked the passages above cited, for he says 3 that 
the landslip is apocryphal and that the name Avalanche is 
derived from the Oanarese avai-anohi or { first post,' from the 
post-house formerly located there. Ouchterlony 3 s survey report 
shows that the post did not go that way until about 1848. 

fn Baihie's time, ' towards the lower part of the valley, which 
is still encumbered with rods, trunks of trees, masses of earth, 
etc,., a chalybeate spring is found issuing from below the debris 
and mingling with the rivulet, to which it imparts an ochrey 
tinge.' This water was analysed bj Drs. Baikie and Glen, and 

1 Harknoss' book on the i'ddas, 14#. 

* See Jer^ie 1 Jmmey to ihs IPalte of the Oauvery (London, 18M) S pp. 139, 3 41, 

8 SUe/wi Mamtalf 7 note. • 



GASSfrFTKXB. . 847 

the results were so favourable (the spring being : niueh the CHAP. XV. 

strongest and purest yet examined') that they entertained the Ootacam«kjj 

hope that it would prove ' highly useful in cases of debility 

of the digestive organs/ especially as it was situated in a 

sheltered valley possessing a climate far more equable than that 

of Ootacamund. Happily this idea of locating a second Carlsbad 

in this beautiful spot came to nothing, and the valley retains its 

anoient peace and is a favourite haunt of small and large game. 

All that is wanted to complete its attractions is some trout in 

the fine stream, plentifully fringed with the Nilgiri lily, which 

traverses it and tumbles over a little cascade of eleven stops in view 

of the bungalow. This is one of the feeders of the Kundah river 

and is usually called the Avalanche stream. A bridge was built 

over it in 1847 at the point where the road crosses it, but this was 

washed away audits place has been taken by a cradle, big enough 

to hold one person, which travels along a wire rope. 

Pleasant expeditions from Avalanche are to ' Mclvor's bund s 
(referred to on p. 352), four miles by bridle-path; up the pass 
to the top of the Kundahs (called £ Avalanche top ') by the 
SispaVa bridle-path, 2^- miles ; and to the top of the big hill at the 
back (south) of the bungalow, The pass up which runs the 
Sisp^ra path is one of the finest in all the Nilgiris. Early 
visitors to the hills waxed exceeding enthusiastic over its beauties. 
' The view from all points of this ascent/ wrote Dr. Benza the 
geologist, 1 ( is really grand. I do not recollect having seen 
anywhere such a wild, yet magnificent, spectacle as the ravine 
formed by the two hills — the one of the Avalanche chain, the 
other one of the eastern range of the Kundaha. The thick 
impervious jungle, extending its whole length, occupies also the 
lower half of the steep declivity of both the hills, and is then 
succeeded by the usual carpet like covering of dense turf, which, 
extends to the very pinnacles of their prodigious altitudes. 
, , " . At every turn of the road a most striking and superb 
coup d'aeil presents itself— the nearly vertical side of the 
Avalanche hill, with its precipitous battlement-like summit — the 
enormous prismatic masses, three or four in number, bursting,, 
as it were, through the turf-covered soil of the stee|3 declivity of 
tlie hill ; one of which, in particular, looks like a huge martello 
tower stuck to the nearly vertical side of the mountain— -while 
the magnificent ravine to the left completes the striking view 
before us. This assemblage of grand and wild objects oaanot 
but produce sensations of wonder and admiration/ 

* i M.,TX.S. S ir, 2M, 



348 , TBI NILOXBIS. 

CHAP. XV. Dr. Eenaa might also have spared a few superlatives for the 

Ootacamund. flowers along this ravine, tho magnolias and rhododendrons 
in the jungles, and the balsams, orchis and blue gentians amid 
the grass. # 

From the top of the pass it is an easy walk eastwards, along 
the south side of the ravine, to the top of the big hill imme- 
diately above the bungalow. The same point can also ho reached 
from the bungalow itself by going a hundred yards along the 
path to Mclvor's bund and then turning sharp to the right up 
the steep grass slope above it. The view from this hill is one of 
the most comprehensive in all the plateau, for the panorama 
begins with Mukarti Peak on the north and embraces the 
Avalanche valley ; Ootacamund and Dodabetta ; the heights of 
J)evash6]a and Ooonoor (conspicuous by their blue gums) ; the 
Bhavani valley, up which drift lazy clouds ; beyond that the 
Lambton's Peakrange and (on clear days) the Anaimalais ; Bellai- 
rambaij SlottakaUu and Tai sholas, three of the biggest wood- 
lands on the plateau, lying one "behind the other ; the Balghit 
hills beyond them ; olose at hand, the sugar-loaf peak of Derbetta 
or Bear hill ; and last the quieter "beauties of the undulating land 
which stretches away westwards to Sisptira, 

Dr. Benza preferred the scene obtained by clambering from 
the top of the pass to the summit ol the Avalanche hill, up its 
southern side. ' The view from it, 5 he says, ' is the nonplus ultra 
of this group ; but the spot which struck me most was the awful 
recess to the north, intersected by deep ravines and abrupt 
escarpments, which join the Avalanche range to that of the 
Hiffligala. This wild scene is exceedingly striking, and I thought 
it the most romantic in the Nilgiris until I visited Mukarti. 5 

BiUikal: A hamlet of Hulhatti' situated about 1,G0G feet 
below Uotacamund and some eight miles noitb of it by a steep 
brtdle-path taking off from the Oonnemara Road. The place 
contains a bungalow now belonging to Khan Bahadur Haji Fakir 
Muhammad Salt of Ootacamund and a small artificial lake, and has 
long been a favourite spot for a trip from Ootacamund, Capt. 
Uarkiiess, who wrote in 1832, says that even then a garden had 
been established there and was doing wonderfully well. Baikie 
(1883) speaks of Sir William RumboloVs ' little farm ! there. The 
place stands on the edge of the plateau and Burton ] says that one 
inducement to go there was ' the pleasure of contemplating the 
reeking .flats of Mysore. 5 In those days the path down to Sigftr 
ran through it. but this was afterwards superseded by the present 
Sigur ghat. 

1 Hoa wl tits Sim Mowntahis, 31*2. 



0ABKTT1-ER. 849 

Apparently the bungalow was first built by Sir Willi nm CRAP. XT. 
Bmnbold as a shooting-box ; and. it is said ' that there was then OoTAnA«tiNi>. 
a small natural pond close by and that this was afterwards enlarged 
in 18 M by Mr. Martelli, who then owned the property. Appa- 
rently this latter gentleman is identical with the £ Mr. Martin, an 
Italian,' who is described in the Asiatic Journal, xxsiv (1841), 
108, as having settled at ( Betticull ' and established a silk factory 
there. That journal said that he had already produced some good 
specimens of silk, and some of the white mulberry trees he planted 
for his worms are still in existence. Sir "William Rurobohl, it is 
said, 2 was the first to stock the pond (which is usually known now 
as the Billikal lake) with fish from the plains, and Mr. Martelli 
re-stocked it with fish obtained from the Signs* river and from 
Barra, at the confluence of that stream with the Moyar. Mr. 
Sullivan also planted fruit trees round about. 3 

In Dr. Day's time (I860) the fish had greatly increased and 
some of the carp (Punilus Oarnatieus) weighed 5 lb.* He trans- 
ferred a few of them to Gotacamund. In his Rod in India Mr. H, 
S. Thomas says that in 1875 Mr. Thomas K&yo : then owner of the 
lake and bungalow., told him that the water was still full of big fish 
which rose to a fly and took butterflies thrown in to them, and the 
sound of whose splashing about could even, be heard from the 
bungalow, two or three hundred yards away. They kept to the 
deep water and were unapproachable without a boat. Apparently 
nothing has been seen of them in recent years and the only sport 
at present is with the little Rasbora, which take a very small Sy 
greedily. 

On the top and the southern side of what is called the Billikal 
hill are several cairns which were dug into by Mr. Breeks in 1872. 
The finds, which included a gold ring, are described on pp. 83-84 
of his book already often cited. Under a group of trees near 
Ohinna Kuanur, three miles east of Billikal, is a sculptured crom- 
lech not mentioned in any of the books and two others without 
ornament, A number of others, also unnoticed hitherto, stand in 
ruins round a prominent big tree near the hamlet of Kavilorai to 
. the south-south-west. 

Kalhatti : A hamlet of Hulhatti situated three miles from the 
head of the Sigur ghat and eight miles north of Ootacaaiimd. A 
travellers' bungalow stands there (for the accommodation wherein 

1 Dr. fcVauois Bay i» Madras Quai'fc. J ouni. Med. Science, xii, 44. But hia 
names and dates are aofi always accurate, 
* Ibid. 

a Mr. Grigg'fi Manual, 285. 
4 Dr. Day's jj»peir oifed, 77. 



$50 THE WH.GIRI8. 

OAUF. XV. ee the separate Appendix) facing which the Sigur river comes 
Dotacamund. down over a pretty fall 170 feet high, into a deep pool. The place 
is a favourite spot for picnics from Ootacamand. 

The experimental Government gardens which used to exisi 
above the Mis are referred to in Chapter IV. 

About 1^ mile west of the bungalow are the ruins of the old 
fort of Malaikota ( s hill fort ' ) which has been briefly referred to 
in. the accounts of Hulikal Dm" 1 and Konakarai above. Local 
tradition says that the place was the stronghold of a chief who 
was subordinate first to the TJmrnattur Rajas aud then to the kings 
of Mysore and who. when Tipu came into power and coveted the 
place, fied to Nellialam in the Wynaadj where his descendants are 
still known as the Nellialam Arasas, speak Oanarese in the midst of 
a Malayalam country, ally themselves in marriage with the arasus 
('or ru'sua) of Ummaltur and are still applied to by the Badagas 
of the plateau for decisions on. questions of importance. The 
hamlet of Bannimara, half a mile to the east, is still inhabited by 
Be*dars who are said to be descendants of men from the Mysore 
country who were the old chief's servants. 

Captain Harkness, as has already been mentioned, says that 
when Tipu Sultan occupied the fort to overawe tke hill people and 
facilitate the collection of the revenue he changed its name to Bus- 
sain£bad and placed in it a garrison of 60 or 70 sepoys, under a 
killadar named Saiyad Budan, which was relieved every two months 
from Danna"yakank6ttai. Mr. William Keys' report of 1812 men- 
tions a tradition that Tipu oven succeeded in getting a piece or 
two of artillery up to it. 

The old fort stands in a moat commanding position , but little 
now remains of it except its deep ditch. The interior is cultivated 
and the potatoes grown there are alleged to be unusually excellent. 
Harkness gives an interesting account of it m it appeared in his 
day, seventy-five years ago : — 

' Its figure is tkafc of an irregular square, the diameter of which 
does not exceed three hundred yards. The walls are built of ra&e 
stone, and of a reddish sort of earth, which seems to have formed a 
very good ueiatsnt. Including the parapet, they rise to between" 
twelve and fifteen feet above the surrounding level, and in several 
parts project out in the shape of semi towers ; but the whole is now so 
completely overgrown with brambles and other brushwood that with- 
out much labour it is difficult to form a correct notion of its original 
shape. It is however surrounded by a dry ditch, fearfully deep in 
some parts and generally not less than sixty feet, with a breadth at 
the surface of about thirty but gradually decreasing towards the 
bottom. It ' has never had more tkan one entrance, of dimensions " 



0AZBTTHKH. . 351 

sufficient to admit *\ "horseman, and that by a passage leading through ohaP, XV. 
one of the semi towers, approached "by a causeway little more than Ootacamund. 

twb feet wide and in one of the deepest parta of the ditch .... 

To ihe south-east of the fort are hills of much greater elevation, on 
^hich are the ruins of two watch, towers. ... To the left, as we 
approached the causeway, ia a dilapidated temple dedicated to Basava.' 

Worship in this last is still kept up, the hereditary pfijari visit- 
ing it every Monday. 

Masinigudi: Eighteen miles north-west of Ootacainund and 
six from the foot of the Sigur ghat on the main road to Mysore. 
Population 1,291. It is situated in the low country in the MoyaV 
yalley amid much jungle, and is consequently very malarious. 
Contains a travellers' bungalow, police-station , post-office and chat- 
tram. It is the one village in the district which has "been settled 
on the ryotwari system. 

As has already been mentioned (p. 93) , it was once called Masana- 
halli and was known to the earliest visitors to the hills as Deva- 
rayapatna. Masini Amman is the "village goddess, and her shrine 
still stands to the west of the village. The place and the neigh- 
bourhood were formerly of far greater importance than at present* 
South-west of it stand the remains of a mud fort ; round about it 
are the reputed sites of several villages of which no trace now sur- 
vives ; near Tottalingi, in the Westbury estate, Aralatti two miles 
from Masinigudi, and -Sembanattam on the left bank of the Sigtir 
river are signs of other old forts ; and scores of cromlechs and 
1 hero stones/ many of them sculptured, abound around it. South 
of the Sembanattam fort is one (and by it a slab bearing a battered 
Oanarese inscription) ; further south, in the reserved forest, are two 
more ; in patta land, close by, is another ; others stand in Gudi- 
kerimala, Goraikerimala and Malaipuram, deserted hamlets four 
miles east of Masinigudi ; others in and around Masinigudi itself \ 
and a whole series, some half buried, in the forest reserve Wo 
miles east of the Singaratotam estate, the bungalow on which pro- 
perty is partly floored with the slabs belonging to some o£ them. 
These cromlechs are generally of the usual kind, one slab only 
being sculptured and this containing at the top representations 
"of a man and of the sun, moon, lingam and basava; in the second 
r,ow standing figures of both sexes ; and in the third and lowest 
the hero himself, armed with some weapon. 

Two miles west of Masinigudi, in the hill called Karadigudda, 

is much iron ore, and tradition says that a century ago many 

smelters worked it. Hough's Letters on the Neilgh$rries states that 

the tract round the village was formerly highly cultivated, but was 

"devastated in the campaign of 1790-91 with Tipu. The famine of 



35~:J _ THB NILOIBIS. 

OEAP. XV. 1876-78 also pressed severely on this part. What was once a 
Ootaoamtjkm, populous area is now a malarious jungle ; and Masinigudi, oaoe 
(apparently) the capital of the Wynaad, is little more than a 
collection of huts. 

Ittclvor's Blind; Foot miles east of the Avalanche bunga- 
low the Kundah river runs in a deep channel between high hills, and 
there, near the point "where the "bridle-path from Nanjanad to 
Melkundah crosses it. are the remains of the bund which Mr. 
W. (t. Mclvor, then Superintendent of the Government, Cinchona 
Plantations, attempted to construct in 18GS, and above them, sur- 
rounded by Australian trees, the ruins of the bungalow in which 
he lived while the work was in progress. 

Mr. Mclvor was a firm "believer in the 'silting- process' of 
making' embankments, which consists in leading streams down to 
the site of the work, shovelling earth into them above the site, 
and leaving them to bring- the silt down to the work anr) deposit 
it there exactly where it is wanted. So enthusiastic was he on the 
possibilities of this system, which had never been really tried in 
India, that he wrote an illustrated pamphlet on the subject 1 and 
when he was at Home on leave in 1867 took pains to interest the 
Secretary of State and engineering' experts in his views. Mean- 
while Government had resolved to construct a road from Oota- 
camnnd to "M-elkundah, where there was then a Government 
cinchona plantation, but found the Kundah river's deep valley 
a serious obstacle- Mr. Mclvor then came forward with a 
proposal to throw across the river by the silting process a huge 
embaakment no less than 700 feet high ( ! ) which would not only 
form a vast reservoir for irrigation in the plaius but would carry 
the road and so avoid the necessity of going down into the Kundah 
valley and up again the other side. The engineers threw cold 
water on the idea, but the Secretary of State ordered that the 
silting system should at least be given a trial under Mr. Mclvor's 
supervision; and eventually in 1868 that gentleman undertook to 
make an embankment 140 feet high at the spot above referred to 
for the insignificant sum of Es. 25,000. 

Two stone culverts or tunnels, one above the other, traces or" 
whioli exist to this day, were first of all made at the side of the 
river at a cost of Ks. 20,300 to carry off the ordinary and flood 
discharge of the river, and then neighbouring streams were led 
down to the site of the dam, to bring the silt thither, by channels 
which may still be seen on several of the adjoining hills. The 

1 Our Jfowitia-m Ranges : How their resources inanj be turned into aceomtt, 
HiggiabofeUaiu, 1SG7, 



GAZETTEER. 



353 



* river at that point was only 108 feet wide and the valley was only CHAP. XV, 
700 feet wide at 150 feet above the level of the stream. Work Oot*camukd. 
■went on satisfactorily at first, and the reservoir which, was to be 

formed by it cam© to be known as St. Lawrence Lake ; but in 
^une 1869 a freshet topped the bund and swept practically the 
whole of it down stream. Government however sanctioned 
another Hs. 10,000 and operations were begun again. 

On the 15th June 1870, when the embankment was 81 feet 
high, a storm began which lasted for fonr days. The river 
eaine down in a great flood and the water gradually crept up the 
bund in spite of the discharge through the two culverts and 
through escape channels; cut in the side of the gorge. It formed 
at first ( ;i beautiful expanse of water, extending for many miles 
and winding in all directions among the mountains/ but on 
Sunday the 19th it topped the embankment and scoured out a 
breach which rapidly widened and deepened until it reached 
right down to the bed of the river. Contrary to expectation, the 
silt of which the bund was made formed a very compact mass of 
greasy moist clay which offered great resistance to the current, 
and portions of it remained even after the water had rushod 
continuously over it for a month. 

(lovernment were at first inclined to permit another attempt 
to complete the work, after first excavating a, permanent flood- 
water escape through a saddle above the site ; but this saddle 
was discovered to consist largely of rock ; it was found that the 
cost of silting (which had been put at 400 cubic yards per rupee 
but in practice had worked out at only 17} had been greatly 
under-estimated ; and the idea was abandoned. 

TOlknadah ('upper Kundah J ) is a Badaga village of 272 
inhabitants situated on the very edge of the southern side of the 
Kundahs overlooking the Bhavimi valley. Near it are the Tai 
Sh61a and other coffee estates, and the bridle-path thither from 
Ootacamund crosses the Kundah river by abridge built in 1885, 
The Government cinchona plantation which was started in 1865 
in this remote spot and abandoned in 1871 is referred to on 

* p. 184. It was ojiened with convict labour and is still known 
locally as ' the Jail Tote.' 

South of the village is the sculptured cromlech referred to 
on p. 105 of Breeks' book, which is full o! the water-worn stones 
called dcva-koiia-kattii. Here, as in other spots, the Badagas have 
selected the neighbourhood of the cromlech as the supposed 
abode of their deified ancestors Hiriodiya and Ajji. 
' ' 45 



354 THE KXLGIHZS. 

CHAP. XV. Muk&xtl Peak : Perhaps the best known peak oil the ' 

Oot4camuhd. Nilgiris. It is 8,380 feet above the sea (very little lower than 
the two summits of the Avalanche Mil to the south) and fruui 
Ootaoarmmd, twelve miles to the west as the crow flies, is vesy 
noticeable owing to its curious shape., which is that of an acute 1 
angled triangle with one side almost vertical. 

The name by which it is generally known means in Oanarese 
•* cut nose/ and sundry legends are related to account for it. 
One, quoted by Metis, 1 says that Havana, the demon-king of 
Ceylon, furious at finding that the people oi! the plateau paid 
him less reverence than his enemy Kama alias Rangasvami, pro- 
nounced a curse upon them and threw into the air a handful of 
dust which turned into the two kinds of vermin with, which their 
houses and persons are still infested. Kama thereupon out off 
Havana's sister's nose m revenge, and stuck it up in the prominent 
position it still occupies as a permanent warning that he was not 
to be trifled with. 2 The other legend, given by Shortt, 8 avers 
that in days gone by when female infanticide prevailed among 
the Todas the condemned bahies used to be taken to this side of 
the hills to be put oat of the way ; and so no Toda woman was 
allowed to approach it. One of them disobeyed the injunction 
and her nose was cut off as a punishment. It was however 
turned into this peak and she became a goddess. Neither story 
is convincing, but the hill people have not the knack: of spinning 
improbably realistic fairy-tales which distinguishes their brethren 
of the plains. The peak, none the less, is known to every one of 
them, and Grigg says that ' from Mukarti to Molemava' (a 
fabulous tree on the eastern extremity of the hills) is the equiva- 
lent in Badaga ballads to our s from Land's End tn John o J 
0-roatV, while the T<5das are supposed to believe that from its 
dizzy summit the souls of men and buffaloes leap together into 
the nether world. 

The peak is seventeen miles from Ootacamund by, the 
Governor's Sh61a road and the Krurmand bridle-path s and an 
easy path up its eastern face leads to the top. The view from. 
thence is one of the finest in Southern India. Probably the most 
striking description of the locality extant is that of Br. Benaa, 
geologist and surgeon to Sir Frederick Adam. 1 He describes 
how he and a companion set out on foot towards ' the gorge at 

1 The T-riles inhabiting the Neilgherry hills (Maciraa, 1856), GS. 
a The B&m&yana gives quite anofbei* story of the way in which Rfivana's 
sister's nose came to "be cut off. 

5 mil ranges of South India, pt, 1, 9. 
4 IO.L,S., iy, 288, 



GAZETTEER. ^ 357 

Mr) Walhouao hazarded more guarded viewy of the matter. 3 The CHAP. XV. 
incest obvious o[ tho remains were the ruined walls., and they may Ootal-amukd 
have belonged to the huts of the gold-washers. Still further 
e^st, behind 'Bishopsdown, 5 is a valley which the Todas cah 
Puntliut, or c the gold village/* which is another sign that gold 
was worked in the neighbourhood. 

Fairlawns, it may be noted, is so called from a strip of good 
turf there where formerly, according to the imgallant Burton, 2 
( during the fine season the votaries of Terpsichore display very 
fantastic toes indeed , particularly if they wear Neilgherry-made 
boots, between the hours of ten a.m. and five p.m.' In these 
degenerate days people do not care to dance in boots ; on grass 3 
through the hottest hours of the day; but Fairiawns is still, a 
favourite place for picnics. 

Ootacamund, head quarters of the taluk and district and of 
the General commanding the Ninth Division, summer residence 
of the Madras Government, and the largest hill-station in 
Southern India, is a municipality of 18,590 inhabitants. It 
lies eleven miles by road from the present railway terminus at 
Ooonoor in a valley (the bottom of which is 7,228 feet above the 
sea) which is surrounded on the south, east and north by the 
four hills called Klk Hill (8,090 feet), "Dodabotta (8,640), Snow- 
don (8,290) and Club Hill (8,030), but is open to the west, Part 
of the bottom of this valley (see the map attached) has been 
levelled to form the public recreation ground known aa the 
Hobart Park, and the adjoining lower portion of it is occupied 
by a lake, about a mile and a half long and of irregular shape, 
made by damming up the stream which runs through it. The 
main bazaar overlooks the Hobart Park j and in Kan&al, a separate 
valley further north, is another large collection of native nausea. 
The European houses and offices are on higher ground on the 
numerous spurs which run down in every direction from the 
enclosing hills, and for the most part are hidden away among 
thick plantations of Australian and other trees, notably blue gums 
fcSiu-alyptm) and acacias {A, melanos&ylm and defdbata). 

The history ot: the founding of the place is sketched in Chapter 
iL f some account of the mission churches in it is given in 
Chapter III, the roads to it are mentioned in Chapter YII, its 
hospital and schools in Chapters IX and X A its jail and courts in 
Chapter XIII and the doings of its municipality in Chapter XIV. 
All that need now be referred to are the more important of its 

! hi&im AniiQtutry, iv, 161. - &oa and the Blue Mountains, W$, 33JJ. 



358 *J3E VILGIRtg. 

CHAP. XV. remaining buildings and institutions. Regarding these and many 
Ootaca-hund. other matters (among them the much-discussed question of the 
etymology of the name Ootacamnnd) a mine of information is 
provided by Sir Frederick Price's forthcoming work; 1 and the 
following lew lines consist chiefly of facts purloined therefrom. 
For fuller particulars the reader should consult Sir Frederick's far 
more detailed accounts. 

The Government Offices on Storehouse hill occupy the site, 
and include part, of Stonehouse, the first house which was built at 
Ootacamnnd. This was constructed (of stone, whence its name) 
in 1822-23 by the "Mr. John Sullivan who has so frequently been 
mentioned already. To the east of it hs laid out an excellent 
garden, which he placed under the care of a European gardener. 
From 1827 to 1834. the house was let to Government and was 
utilized, as quarters for officers in bad health ; from 1847 to 1855 
it was a school; from 1860 to 1869 the male branch of the 
Lawrence Asylum was located, ia it ; and it first became the 
Government office in 1870. Between 1875 and 1877 the place 
was greatly enlarged and the existing council chamber and clock- 
tower were built (the clock being put up in 1883) and in 1882-84, 
1899 and 1905 further considerable improvements were made. 
The saluting battery just below it was built in 1889-90 and the 
separate house for the Press in 1904. The old oak near the 
entrance stands within what was formerly Mr. Sullivan's garden, 
and very probably lie planted it. .No other trace of the garden 
survives. 

Government House, which stands just above the Botanical 
Gardens already referred to in Chapter IV, was begun in 1 877, 
when the Duke of Buckingham was Governor. Up to 1876 there 
had been no regular residence for His Excellency,, and late in that 
year two houses called Upper and Lower Norwood (the former of 
which is now used as the Private Secretary's quarters) and also 
Garden Cottage, now the residence of the Surgeon to the* Gov- 
ernor, were acquired for that purpose and added to and altered. 
It became clear however that the two bungalows could never 
provide suitable or sufficient accommodation, and in 1877 trfe 
present Government House was began. It was first occupied 
in 1879, but was not really completed for some four years 
more. The eventual capital cost, including furniture, waa about 
Bs. 7,80,000. The ballroom was added by Sir Arthur Havelook 
in 1900 and coat Bs. 60,000, and the main building and outhouses 
were provided with electric light in 1904 for about the same sum, 

1 Ootacamnnd j a history, GoYerameut Press, Madras, 1808. 



SAZETTEEK. -359 

The Army Head Quarters Offices began life as Bombay Castle chap. XV. 
alias ' Framjee's shop/ the place of business of a Parsi firm of Outacamunh. 
general dealers well known for many years in Ootacamund. After 
the death of the last surviving partner in this firm, the property 
Ws sold in 1882 to G-orernment for Es. 70,000 and the buildings 
were converted into the present offices (which were first occupied 
' in 1884) and re-named Mount Stuart after the then Governor, the 
lafco Sir (then Mr.) Mountstuart Grant Doff. In 1889-90 and 
1892 the front of the building was renewed and other improve- 
ments wore carried out at a cost of Es. 37,000. 

The foundation stone of St. Stephen's Church was laid on the 
23rd April 1829 (the then King's birthday) by Mr. Stephen 
Eumbold Lushington, the then Governor, and work on the super- 
structure was begun in the .January following. The big beams 
and other timbers for it were brought from Tipu Sultan's Lai 
Bagh palace at Seringapatam , which had been demolished. 
The pillars are of teak, ooated with plaster and pointed to imitate 
stone. The building was consecrated on the 5th December 
1830 by Bishop Turner of Calcutta, who happened to be visiting 
this part of his charge at that time. He preached from the appro- 
priate test ' The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for 
them, and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. 5 The 
church was doubtless called St. Stephen's out of compliment to 
Mr. Stephen Lushington, who had taken immense interest in it 
from, the first. Though orders had been given that the cost was 
not to exceed Bs. 8,000, the expenditure up to 1831 wasBs. 24,000, 
all of which was borne by Grovernment. The Directors were horri- 
fied, and the Archdeacon, who had nothing to do with the matter, 
was called upon to explain and eventually, in 1835, was censured 
for i indifference to the public interests ' and ( neglect of duty.' 

A barrel organ was provided in 1841; in 1851 the gallery,'a 
clock and a bell were added — all three from private subscriptions ; 
in 1857 a porch was built and the compound improved ; in 1864 
a better organ was put in ; in 1877 Mrs. W. G. Mclvor gave a 
new chancel in memory of her late husband and the present organ 
v^as procured at a cost o£ about £450 ; and in 1894 the peal of 
tubular bells was put up from subscriptions. 

The church and the pretty cemetery round it contain many 
tombstones of interest. The earliest in the church f 1830) is that 
of Harriet Elisabeth, wife of Sir William Rumbok^ Bart, the 
bailder of the Club referred to on p. 861. The oldest in the church- 
yard is to the memory of Major W. M., Robertson, who died in 
i8&5 and was buried in the little cemetery near Stonehou.se which 



360 



THE HILGIEIS. 



CHAP. XV, 
Ootaoamund, 



was then in use ; bat this stone was not actually erected until 1838, 
Other graves worth mention are those of the Kev. William Sawyer 
(1832), the first Chaplain of Qotacamund, who was appointed* in 
1831 ; General William Staveley, Commander-in-Chief of the 
Madras Army, who died at Tippak&du in 1854 (it is said^of 
heart disease, in a transit) ; Sir Henry Davison, Chief Justice 
of Madras (1860), to whom Thackeray affectionately dedicated , 
The Virginians; Colonel John Ouehterlony, R.H3., whose Survey 
Beporfc of 1847 on these hills has so often been quoted in these 
pages (1863); Caroline Elizabeth, mother of Sir Arthur Haveloek, 
Governor of Madras from 1895 to 1900 (1866) ; and James 
Wilkinson Breeks, first Commissioner of the Nilgiris, in memory 
of whom the Breeds' school was started (1872). 

The foundation stone of St. Thomas' Church, on the borders of 
the lake, was laid on 1st May 1867. The building was con- 
structed in compliance with fervent local representations (which 
Had begun so far back as 1858) that St. Stephen's was too small 
for the growing- congregation, could not be enlarged without 
difficulty, and was a long way from many of the houses in the 
station. It was apparently named out of compliment to Bishop 
Thomas Dealtry, v/ho had taken the deepest interest in it and to 
whose memory the west window -was afterwards raised by his 
widow. It was completed in 1870 at an outlay of Rs. 63,000 (of 
wHeh Es, 8,700 was the net cost of the site) and Government 
contributed about half of the amount. It was consecrated in the 
same year "by the Bishop of Calcutta (the Eight Sev. Robert 
Milraan) and opened for public worship (as a chapel of ease to 
St, Stephen's, under the same L*ay Trustees) in April 1871. 
Government gave the present bell in 1878. 

The cemetery at St. Stephen's was closed in 1881, and burials 
now take place at St. Thomas'. Among ike graves there are 
those of "William Patrick Adam, Governor of Madras, to t whose 
memory the fountain which formerly stood in front of the Collec- 
tor's office and is now at Charing Cross was erected (1881); Sir 
Frank Pouter, Commissioner of Police, Bombay (1888); Captain 
Preston, who was drowned in the Krurmand river when out with 



GAZETTBSR. 861 

The Library began as an appendage to one of the local museums CHAP. XV. 
which were established in various distracts in 1855 as feeders to Ootacamcnd. 
tne Madras Museum ; and was at first quartered in a rented ~~~ 

building. In 1858 the idea of forming a regular public library first 
found expression and it was favoured by the authorities. In 1861 
tli© museum, which had always been an insignificant affair, was 
abolished, and the Government grant of Es. 100 a month which 
had been made to it and the library together was continued to the 
latter, which by this time was located in a house near the existing 
building which had been purchased from public subscriptions. 
In 1864 Government presented the institution with a number 
of books which the amalgamation of the Haileybury College 
and India House libraries had rendered available. In 186? the 
foundation stone of the main portion of the existing building was 
laid with much ceremony by the then Chief Secretary, Mr. A. J. 
Arbuthnot. The site, which had formerly been occupied by the 
travellers' bungalow, had been presented by Government. At 
that time the institution possessed 4,000 volumes, 180 subscribers 
and a monthly income from subscriptions of Ks. 575 The 
building cost over Es 30,000 and was opened in 1809. In 1875 
Government withdrew its monthly grant; in 1878 the Library 
was registered as an Association under Act XXI of 1860 ; and an l 

additional [ Silent Boom/ in which there was to be no talking, a 
room above it and a ladies' cloak room were added in 1899 at a 
cost, including furniture, of Es. 9,700. lu 1904 the Silent Boom 
was refurnished, provided with a fireplace and turned into a com- 
fortable sitting-room ; the room above it was set apart in its place 
for those who desired absolute quiet j and other changes designed 
to render the institution more popular were agreed to and set in 
train, 

The house occupied by the Club was built in 1831-32, at 
a cost of between £12,000 and £15,000, as a hotel by Sir 
"William Rumbold, Bari. (a grandson of the Sir Thomas Eumbold 
who was Governor of Madras in 1778-80 and was created a 
baronet after Pondi cherry capitulated to Sir Hector Muxiro in 
^ 1778) who with his younger brother had joined the great banking 
firm of William Palmer & Co. of Hyderabad, which at that time 
.practically financed the Nizam. The building operations were 
superintended by one Felix Joachim (then Sir William's butler), 
who made enough out of them to construct the neighbouring 
house, Hauteville, on Ms own account. The place was opened as 
a hotel in 1833 and in the same year Sir William Eumbold died 
at Hyderabad and was buried there. In 1834 the house was 
in 



363 THE tflLGIRXS. 

CHA.P. XV. rented by tlie Governor-G eneral, Lord W. Beutinok > for Es. 1,201} " 
OoTiojanwD, a month; in 1835-J8 was leased by the then Governor of Madras, 
" ~ Sir P. Adam ; afterwards again became Gitlier a hotel or a private 
residence ; and in 1841 was sold to the originators of tlie Gotaca- 
round Cluli. Dr. Baikie was the first permanent Secretary of this?. 
The line of bedrooms to the east of the main building was added in 
1863 at a cost of Es. 16,000 and the two-storeyed chambers east 
again of these in 1898 at an outlay of Rs. 23,800. In 1831 the 
then dining-room was tamed into the present billiard-room and 
the then card and reading rooms were made into the present 
dining-room. The new card-room was built in 1899 at a cost 
of Ks. 7,400 and the separate annexe for ladies in 1904 at an 
outlay of Rs. 21,000. 

The first beginning of the present Gymkhana Club was the 
{ Neilgherry Archery Club ' started in 1869 by Mr. Breeks, then 
Commissioner on the hills. This grew into the A.B.C. (Archery, 
Badminton and Croquet) Club which in 1875 put up the building 
on the Hobart Park, just below the brewery., which is now called 
* the old pavilion. ' In 1882 the Gymkhana Club, which at the 
time represented little bat the racing and polo interests, was 
formed, and in 181)2 the A.B.C. Club was amalgamated therewith 
and all the amusements thus came under the control of one hotly. 
In 1890 the Gymkhana Club was registered as a limited liability 
company ; and in 1898 the present pavilion or race-stand was 
completed at a cost of Es. 27,000. The land on which it stands 
is the property of Government and is leased to the Olnb on 
certain stated conditions. 

The grouud in front of it — now used as a race-course., polo 
and cricket-ground and gol! links — was until recently part of the 
lake. This lake was made in 1823-25, and was due to the 
initiative of Mr. Sullivan, the then Collector. It originally ran 
hack even a little beyond the road which now goes from the 
market towards Bombay House at the top end of the race- 
course (hereabouts was a likely spot for snipe) and it was crossed, 
in the middle by the Willow Bund — built in 1881 and so 
called because its edges are fringed with Indian willows — - which ^ 
provided a short cut between the two sides of the station. It 
was originally suggested that the water of the lake should be 
utilized for irrigation down at Sigiir, at the bottom of the ghSt, 
or even used for supplementing the supply in the Moyar and the 
Oauvery, bat in 1880 Government definitely declined to consider 
any such project. The bund of the lake breached in 1830, deve- 
loped leaks in I84S whiob. were only stopped with much trouble. 



rt-ABBTTBFR. 363 

"and breached again in 1852 to such an extent that the lake ran CHAP. xv. 
quite dry. Ootacahund 

Very soon after the construction of the lake the upper pai-t of 
i\ began rapidly to shallow, owing to the deposit oi silt by the 
stream which filled it, and became an unpleasant quagmire. 
Attempts to fill in a swamp there were made in 1868 in a desultory 
fashion, but nothing systematic was done until the end of 1893, 
when faseines were thrown across the supply stream to assist the 
deposit of silt and the amount of this silt was increased by 
cutting away the sides of the main and feeder streams. Two 
years of these operations resulted in very little, and at the end of 
1895 Government sanctioned a lakh of rupees for filling in the 
late with earth cut from the higher ground around it. Labour 
proved difficult to get, and in 1897 the 4th (now 64th) Pioneers 
were brought up to carry out the work The ultimate cost was 
over two lakhs, and for this sum the whole of the lake above the 
Willow Bund was filled in, levelled and turfed, the new road at 
the hack of the Gymkhana pavilion was formed and the tennis 
courts there were made. The pipe drains subsequently (1903) put 
down between the Willow Bund and the old pavilion cost another 
Rs. 28,000. The Hobart Park is now one of the most beautiful 
recreation grounds* in India and the biggest in any hill-station 
there. The race-course round it has a lap of a mile and a 
quarter. 

Sispira t Now an utterly deserted spol at the ozfcrorae south- 
western corner of the plateau. But when* the Sispara road 1 * 
from Ootacamund to the foot of the ghats below this corner was 
being made in 1833, and afterwards so long 1 as it was still in use, 
this place was well known and much frequented, as it was a 
halting-point on what was then the main route from Calicut to 
Ootacamund, It stands just below a strikingly sheer cliff of rook 
at an elevation estimated to bo 5,600 feet above the sea } and as 
it was the camp of the Pioneers who made the road it was at one 
time called "Murraypet, after the Captain W. Murray who was in 
charge of the detachment. A sketch of it which forms the 
iVontispieee to the second edition of Baikie's NeilgherrUs shows 
that in 1857 a tiled bungalow stood there. Dr. Beuza, whose 
enthusiastic description of B-ukarti Peak has been quoted ahovej 
was also greatly struck with the scenery round Hispara, He 
says 1 the view from the summit of the range, aboye where the 
'bungalow was afterwards built-— 

1 MJ.L.S.,iY,2S!., 



S64 THE NIMHMB. 

CHAP. XV". ' Is really magnificent, particularly that of the gigantic araphi- 

OeTAc&MuND, theatre to the right, the termination of the Kun&ahs on this side. . 
— - . . . The extraordinary chasm called the Devil's Gap ia situatffd 

nearly in the centre oi this semicircle . . . . The lower part of 
this chasm is nearly level ■with the road, ■which, passes close to it. 
The rocks forming its walls are inaccessible, and it is therefore diffi- 
cult to say what is the width of the gap ; but it may he ahout a 
hundred yards .... Prom the outside of the pillars forming 
it we see, jutting down towards the Malabar, two sharp ridges like 
balustrades to kugo stairs leading to this gigantic doorway .... 
Perhaps the most picturesque view is that of the hills of Malliallum 
[Malabar] ; . . . the red clouds hovering above and the hlue 
firmament surrounding them form a scene of grandeur worthy of the 
pencil of Claude de Lorraine.' 

He appends a sketch of the Devil's Gap ' from the original 
in oils by Captain Barron/ 

Later on a chattram was built beside the travellers' bungalow 
at Sispara alongside the road. Both are now in ruins, but for 
many years after they had tumbled down and the road which 
once led by them had become all but impassable from the jungle 
which had overgrown it they were still shown on the maps ; and 
a gruesome story is told of a traveller who attempted in conse- 
quence to got to Ootacamund from the west coast by this route. 
One of his two followers quickly succumbed to exposure to the 
driving rain and bitter cold of the monsoon ; and with the other 
he set out up the ghib. The second servant collapsed soon 
afterwards ; but the traveller took him on his back and struggled 
on, buoyed up with, the hope of assistance and. food when he reached 
the bungalow at the top. When he did at length arrive there, 
the only sign of the bungalow was its crumbling rams, and the 
nearest human being was at Avalanche, miles further on. He 
managed to reach that place, still carrying his servant, but the 
latter had died on the way. 

Xun^ri ! Six miles as the crow ftica north-east of Ootacamund 
on a commanding position overlooking Mysore. Is a thriving 
Badaga village of 1,248 inhabitants, which is supposed to be 
one of the oldest settlements of that casto on tho plateau and* 
now contains a station and church of the Basel Mission. In its 
hamlet Anikorai is the only ' snake-stono 3 on the Nilgiris, It is 
perhaps ten feet long and one foot wide and all tho villagers can 
say about it is that one fine day a snake thero wj 
turned to stone, 



365 



GtfDALtTK TALUK. 



GuDALX/a taluk consists of the Ouchterlony Valley separately cifAP. XV*. 
referred to "below and of the three amsams (or parishes) of GtJdalijs. 
Cherank6d, MunanaVl and Nambalakod, which are collectively ~ 

known as the Nilgiri (or South-east) Wynaad to distinguish them 
from the Malabar Wynaad further west and were transferred to 
the Nilgiris oaly in 1877., previous to which they formed part of 
Malabar district. 

The history of the Wyaaad and the derivation of its name have 
been given in Chapter II. It has already (p. 6) been explained 
that in all its physical aspects this tract differs totally from the 
Nilgiris proper. It is 4,000 feet lower and therefore hotter, and 
it gets a far heavier rainfall ; consequently its flora, and fauna 
are quite unlike those of the plateau, its forests being almost 
interminable sub-tropical jungle in which grow trees and plants 
unknown on the higher levels (a really beaatiful garden could be 
formed of its wild flowers alone) and its animal, bird and insect 
life (not forgetting its leeches) being move in evidence and more 
varied. It is in short a botanist's Paradise and a naturalist's El 
Dorado. Moreover its crops are those of the low country, flourish- 
ing rice and vagi taking the place of the scanty korali and samai 
of the plateau; its people are different, Malay tilam-apeaking 
Chettis and Paniyans cultivating its fields instead of Badagas and 
K6tas ; the houses are mostly walled, with plaited bamboo and 
roofed with thatch with a sprawling veg stable marrow atop, 
instead of being built of mud and red tiles ; and the land tenures 
aro those of Malabar, with all the complications arising from the 
existence of janmam right, and so (sec pp. 278-282) the revenue 
settlement in force differs altogether from that on the Nilgiris 
proper. The Wynaad has seen more stirring times, too. Hundreds 
of acres of it have been, wrested from the jungle and turned mto 
s the coffee estates and gold mines whoso melancholy fate has 
been sketched on pp. 18-19 above j but nearly all this land has now 
gone back to "jungle again. Its indigenous cultivators are so 
listless that to stop further retrogression (the population is now 
only 75 to the square mile) it was suggested in 1894 that 
Badagas from the plateau (though they are far from being model 
agriculturists) should be encouraged to migrate thither and bring 
its waste knolls and swamps under cultivation. But the Badagas 



366 , THE STUHHXS. 

OHAP. XY» Have the greatest dread of the Wynaad fever and nothing -would 
GitoALtSa. induce tliem to go there. The suggestion of 1894 was magnified 
~~~~ more Indico into a "bazaar raraour that Badagas were to "be* 
ordered to go down ; and one oi them voiced the feelings of his 
caste-fellows when he wrote anxiously to the Collector : ' X have* 
heard that Badagas are to "be sent down to Wynaad, I do not 
know why. Although our throats he cut or we he shot we will 
not go (with prostrations') . I "beg and pray. The Badagas are 
in fear at this rumour. We canuot stand Wynaad. The fever 
is terrible. "We shall die in one &&y if we go there. We want 
to die hero on the Mils.' Beautiful, therefore, as it is, and 
interesting as are its wild life a-nd its many trees and flowers, its 
air of having seen hetter days makes the Wynaad rather a 
melancholy tract. 

Ch&rambi&i: Twenty-three miles f rom G-udalur on the great) 
road to Yayitri, in the extreme western corner of the taluk. 
Contains a travellers'' "bungalow, a police-station, a post-office 
and the chief market of the Cheranlcod amsam. It was once a 
great planting centre, and is now the one and only plaee along the 
whole of this southern side of the taluk where any planting 
survives, a tea estate and factory "being therp. Mica has also heen 
mined (see p. IS) on a small scalp 

D&v&la ; Ten miles from Gudalur on the road to Oherambadi 
and Yayitri, and four "beyond the head of the Itarkin* gh&t lead- 
ing down to Malabar, During the gold-boom of 1 S79— iSsi (see pp. 
1S-19) it was an important mining centre and boasted an A.B.O. 
Cluh which held race-meetings and organized f Canterbury 
Weeks/ a European population of over 300 (including many- 
ladies), a post and telegraph office, a hotel and a hospital (two 
miles away on the road to jMellialam), while the hills round about 
it wero studded with the "bungalows of the European employes of 
the gold companies. It was styled ' the rising capital of South- 
east Wynaad \ and Professor Eastwick went as far so to identify 
it with the Biblical c land of Havilah, where there is gold.' It 
has now dwindled to a hamlet of 495 inhabitants, hut stiil 
contains a post-office, police-station, chattram and travellers"" 
"bungalow. 

The natives sometimes call the place Oeva latottai, and 
say that the fort implied hy this name existed just ahove the 
chattram and "belonged to a chief of the Veddas. who wero the 
people who sunk all the scores of gold-mining shafts which still 
make the neighbouring jungles unsafe places for a walk. A legend 



QAZXTTSSS. 367 

"relates 1 that once the Kummbrana'd Kaja came up from the CHAP. XY. 
Wynaad with many soldiers to seize the gold which the Ved&a G-CnAifrE. 
cllief and his people had accumulated, and that the latter, being 
better at mining than fighting, pat all their treasure in great 
copper pots and sunk it in the tanks near their various forts. 
One of these tanks was the little sheet of water now called the 
Sh&likulam which lies by the side of the road about half way 
between Devala and the top of the Karkur ghit ; and another 
was in a hollow immediately east of the bungalow of Woodbriar 
estate near 'Nellakottai, which stands on the site of a Yedda fort 
formerly called Manankottai or Manerak6ttai. 

The Knrumbranad Raja, says the story, killed nearly all the 
Vedda people, but a few of them ran away and are still to be 
found in Mysore and the Nilamhur forests in llalabar. The 
Baja then gave the country to the Valunnavar (also spelt ( War- 
naver ' and ' Varna var J ) of Nambalak6djand went away. About 
a hundred years ago the Yalunnavar tried to get the gold out of 
the Shulikulam. lie did much puja ; all the people were feasted 
for three days ; a great tamasha was made. Then the Valunna- 
var got elephants and chains, and the chains were fastened to 
the great copper pot at the bottom of the tank. The elephants 
were beaten, all the people shouted and cried out, the priests 
prayed, and the top of the great pot appeared above the water. 
Then suddenly two chains slipped, the pot fell back, and nothing 
was left but the copper cover. A fearful storm of wind and rain 
began., the people fled to their homes, and on that night the 
Yalunnavar' s son and most of the people engaged in the under- 
taking died. The copper cover was kept for a long time at 
33e"valak6ttai and was afterwards taken to the Nambalak.6d 
temple, where it is declared to have been seen by many people 
who were alive as late as thirty years ago. But no one has again 
dared to tamper with the Skulikulam, for it is believed that 
whoever attempts to recover the gold will surely be killed. 

"Perhaps this legend possesses some foundation of tratli. It 
is at least widely believed. The lease of Woodbriar estate 
granted hy the present janmi, the Nilainhur TiramulpM, contains 
fj stipulation that any treasure found in the tank there shall be 
handed over to the janmi ; and the Tirumulpa'd refused an offer 
made by ' one of the most acute and farsighted Bnglishmea in the 
"Wynaad' for the right to search for the gold in the Shuliknlam. 
The tradition that the old mining shafts were made by a vanished 
people called the Veddas is also most- persistent, and is constantly 
recurring in various connexions. 

• 1 Ux, Brougk Smyth's report on the Wyiiaad gyM mines, U. 



358 THE KILGtEIS, 

CHAP, £Y. CMdaliir; The head-quarters of the taluk; lies thirty miles" 

GtiDALtte. "by road from Ootacamund and contains tlie "building (erected in 
~~ 1866 at a cost of Ks. 20,500 and added to in 1885 at an outlay U 
Us. 6 3 660) in which the deputy tahsildar (who is also a district 
murtsif) and tlie she ristadar- magistrate (who is also a sub-regis- 
trar) hold their offices ; a D.P.W. rest-house and a local fund 
travellers' 1 bungalow ; Protestant and Boman Catholic churches 
and cemeteries ; a hospital, a police-station, a post and telegraph 
office and 2,55S inhabitants. The name is said to mean ( junction 
village ' because the plaoe is built at the junction of the three 
roads from Mysore, Ootacamand, and Sultan's Battery in the 
Malabar Wynaad respectively. The public offices and a few of 
the houses stand in Bandipet and Kokal , near this junction, but 
the better and more fashionable part of the village is built a mile 
away up the ghat to the hills, and recent epidemics of plague in 
the lower quarter (where also the water-supply is wretched) have 
emphasized the preference for the higher site. 

Every Sunday a market is held in Gudalur. As elsewhere in 
the Wynaad, M&YpiHas from Malabar are the chief traders there- 
at. It is not so important as it was in the days when the Wynaad 
nourished, but it still supplies the Ouchterlony Yalley and the 
estates which survive. The Wynaad does not grow nearly enough 
grain for its own consumption and long strings of carts full of 
ragi come in weekly from Wysore territory. Numbers of these 
go on up the gh.it to Nadiivattain and Ootacamand, for though 
this is a roundabout route from Mysore it is preferred by the 
cartmen owing to the excessive gradients on the shorter road via 
the Sigur ghat. 

The Protestant church was designed by Colonel Morant, K.E., 
the architect of St. George's at Wellington and the chancel of All 
Saints', Ooonoor, and was consecrated by the Bishop of Madras in 
1889. The Protestant cemetery was partly consecrated by him in 
that year and partly in 1880. 

Mudumalai : A small village of 629 people which gives its 
name to the well-known Mudumalai forest. In Mandavakarai, a 
neighbouring hamlet, is an enormous tree, probably the biggest 
in all the Wynaad, under which lives a god called Bomraadan 
or Bommarayan who is worshipped by the Ghettis. Less than_a 
mile south of it is a paved spot on which stand a lingam and two 
Siva's bulls j and at Hnlisakal l is a small Siva shrine of cut stone. 

1 Apparently the ' Halibal ' of Sewell's Listu of Antiquitus, i, 225. The 
HaBum&n there mentioned is not to be found. Tho Siva shrine must bo the 
Br&hmnHloal temple Ms. Ssivell piaoea uader Madamald. The ( tsmple with 
inscriptions ' at 'OMkkaa&ln' which he mentions cannot be traced* 



GAZETTEER. " 869 

Such tilings are uncommon, in tho Wyuaad and are evidence thar (J HAP. XV. 
t&e place was formerly more thickly populated than now. GiiDAtthi. 

Hambalakod j About 5| miles north-west of GMalur and 
ilie chief place in the amsam of the same name. Its temple to 
Betarayasvami (or Betakarasvami) is of some local repute. The 
old fort from which it gets its name is now overgrown with 
lantana. It was formerly the residence of the Yalunnavar 
referred to in the account oi Bevala on p. 367. 

Official papers say that at one time the whole arnsam "belonged 
to certain ' Mala rayons ' who, being unable to defend themselves 
from devastating bands of frec-booters, sought the protection of 
the Kimiinbraaad Haja, who at last agreed to send his son 
Valunnavar to rule over them on consideration of receiving seven 
granaries as his private property. About 1826 the place was held 
by one Kelukutti Yalunnavar, who (if not actually half-witted, as 
was freely alleged) was so unfitted for hie position that he fell 
into great financial strait?. Certain land alleged to be his janrnam 
property was sold in 1830 by order of the Wynaad district 
mimsii! and this afterwards passed to the Nilambur TirunmLpad, 
The nest year the Tirumulpad obtained an assignment of all the 
rest of the Ytilunnavar's property, "but the deed did not convey 
any janrnam right. Kelukutti died in 18-14 leaving only a sister 
named Subudra and her son. They were living at the time at 
Muttilj near 0udaKir, on the charity of the frequenters of the 
temple, and there is much evidence to show that, like her brother, 
she was of unsound mind. The Tirumulpad however soon 
afterwards induced her and her son to move to Nilambiir, where 
the latter died in 1845. In 1858 the Tirumulpad obtained from 
Subndra a deed making over her janrnam rights in JSTambalakod 
amsara. She died in 1872. At the enquiry held in 1884-85 
into escheats in the Wynatidj Government after much discussion 
decided not to call in question the Tirumulpad's claim to janrnam 
righ'ts throughout the amsam. The Mudumalai forest had been 
previously (in 1868) leased from him for 99 years. ' 

Hellakottai : Ten miles north-west of Gudalur on the road to 
Saltan's Battery, Contains a police-station (two rooms of which 
are used as a travellers' bungalow) and a post and telegraph office. 

Tins and the Ouchterlony Valley are the only two places in the 
taluk where planting still flourishes, several coffee estates being in 
existence round about here, and a "big tea estate and factory at 
Deyarshola, three miles nearer Gudalur, The legend regarding 
the tank in the fort which once stood on the site of the Woodbriar 
'estate bungalow has already been referred to in the account of 
41 



370 . THB.NJLCHEIS. 

CHAP. xy. Devaia. This fort occupied a most commanding site; the terraces 
Gn.DALijR. out in the kill-side for it are still visible j parts of its old walls, huQt 
~~ ~ of red "bricks muck larger than those used nowadays, still stand 

behind the bungalow ; and round about are fragments of sculp- 
tured stone which evidently belonged to temples. Tlie tank is 
now buried several feet deep in silt which lias washed down from 
the hill above it. Local accounts say that Tipu also made an 
effort to obtain the treasure supposed to be buried in. it. 

Across the ravine to the west, the top of the ridge above the 
Maramatti estate has evidently also been terraced for some 
fortification or other. 

NeUUUam : About eight miles north-west of Devaia as the 
crow flies. It is the residence of the Neliialam Arasu (Urs), who 
has been recognized as the janmi of a considerable area in the 
Munanadamsam,butism reality a Canarese- speaking Lingayat of 
Canarese extraction, who follows the ordinary Hindu law of 
inheritance and is not a native of the Wynaad or of Malabar. 
Family tradition j. though now somewhat misty, says that in the 
beginning two brothers named Sadasiva Raja Urs and Bhujanga 
Eaja Urs moved (at some date and for some reason not stated) 
from Ummatfciir (in the present CMmar&jnagar taluk of Mysore] 
and settled at Malaikota, the old fort near Kalhafcti referred to on 
p. 350 above. Their family deities were Blurjangesvara and 
Ummattur Urakatti, which are still worshipped as such. They 
brought with them a following of Bedare and Badagas, and there- 
after always encouraged the immigration to the lulls of more 
Canarese people. The village of Banuimara, a mile west of 
Kalhatti, is still peopled "by Bedars who are said to be descendants 
of people of that caste who came with the two brothers ; and to this 
day -when the Badagas of the plateau have disputes of difficulty 
they are said to go down to NeUialam with presents [hinikai) m 
their hands and ask the AraBu to settle their differences, while at 
the time of their periodical ceremonies to the memory of their 
ancestors (mauayalai, see p. 134) they send a deputation to 
Nellialam to invite representatives of the Arasu to be present. 
The Arasu in more recent times persuaded some Devanga weavers 
to move to the Wynaad from My sore, and they are now settled 
about two miles south-east of ISTeilialam. They are the only people 
in this taluk who are weavers by caste, but they are now all 
cultivators by occupation. 

The commandant of the forces of the two Urs brothers; 
continues tradition, was named Badrayya (P Udaiya Baya) and 
built the fort now known as Udaiya BayaK!6ta near K6uakarai.-. 



GAZETTBEB, • 37.1 

referred to on p. 333 above. When at Malaikdta, Bhujanga CHAP. XV. 
I3i.ja Urs was one day invited by the then Nayar chief of Nelli- GtitiAisJK, 
alarn to help him against his "brother, who had turned him out. 
Bhujanga did so with success ; so much so that he took 
NellJalam for his own and drove out the whole of the N&yar 
family. The brother who had called him in cursed the family, 
it is said, and declared that thenceforth it should always be on 
the brink of extinction ; and it is a curious fact that in recent 
generations the father has several times died when his only son 
was still quite a child. 

Tip a Sultan's troops are said to have attacked both Malai- 
kota and Nellialam, and the mutilation of the images in the 
Vishnu temples at the latter place and at Ponnam (a mile to the 
east) is attributed to them. The then chief , another Sadasiva 
Raja Urs, is said to have submitted to tbem and helped them in 
an attack upon Nambalakod. When Tipu J s men withdrew, the 
chief of Nambalakod fell upon Nellialam in revenge, and the 
then Arasu was so hard pressed that he hurriedly despatched 
his pregnant wife and her handmaidens into the surrounding 
jungle and then, to avoid capture, committed suicide in front of 
the gate of his fort, which was afterwards plundered by the men. 
of Nambalakod, Such is the family tradition. It should however 
be mentioned that other accounts state that the family fled from 
Mysore State as late as the time of Tipu and settled in Kellialam 
under the permission of the Pychy rebel referred to in 
Chapter II. 

In later years the history of the family becomes clearer, and 
it m evident that it owes its present position entirely to the action 
of Government officials. In 1858 Mr. (afterwards Sir William) 
Kobinson, then Collector of Malabar, obtained leave to take the 
property under the Court of Wards, since the last Arasu, who 
was the adhigari (village headman) ol Mima-mid and had died in 
1856, had left only a mother of defective intellect and an infant 
sou named Liuga Eaja Arasu. The whole value of the estate 
was then put at only Bs\ 20,000. About 1868 land in Wynaad 

""begun to be of value for coffee estates; and, since the Collector 
had for some reason assumed that much of Munanad amsam was 
the janmam property of this family, the minor Arasu's income rose 
greatly. In 1808 he was sent to the Provincial School at Calicut; 
though previously a tutor on Bs. 4 a month had been considered 
sufficient. He attained his majority in 1871, but as the Collector 
considered that 'the boy's state of mental backwardness amounts 

» to an infirmity sufficient to warrant his being still considered an 



$72 . THE NIIGIRIS. 

CHAV. XV. iacapaoitatefl proprietor, 5 the estate remained under Hi e Court 
G6dali5r. until 1874, when it was Landed over to the Arasn. 1 

This Linga Baja Arasu commit Led suicide in 1887 on the 
death of his younger wife in childbirth; and the Court of Wards 
again assumed charge of the estate on behalf of his minGi»son, 
Bhujanga Raja Ara.su. The latter died in 1890 'when only three 
years of age and his father's sister's sons, Mnga'ndra "Raja Arasu 
(alias Betfciah) and Fattiah, became the Iieiret to the property. 
Litigation followed, and the Collector was appointed Receiver of the 
estate. In December 1804^ as the result of compromise decrees, 
the property was handed over to Mrigendra Raja Arasn, subject 
to the life-interest in one half of it of Bavuramayya, Linga 
Bdja's first wife. He died in 1896 and his sou, Chaudrasekhara 
Baja Arasu, who was bora in 1804-, succeeded him. He was 
educated in Mysore, and Linga llsrja's widow, Bavaramayya, 
managed the estate as joint owner and his guardian, ilo died 
in 1907 and Bavuraraayya is the present proprietor. 

Nothing remains of the old fort of Nellialam except traces of 
its ditch. It is said to have been levelled for growing coffee in 
1S74 by Mr. Adolphua Wright, .fast south oH the village is a 
flat-topped hill called Clnttur Kottai Dinnai which from the 
steepness of its sides is almost inaccessible except on the east, aud 
on this are said to have been built two fortified granaries. 
Traces of the buildings and the defences may still be made out. 

OucKterlony Valley : As is mentioned on p. 2, this valley 
lies in a deep recess under the high western wall of the plateau. 
It is a well-known and important centre of coffee and tea growing 
and comprises nearly forty square miles (of which over 7,000 
acres are planted up) and contains a population ol: 5,205 persons. 

The boundaries of it will appear from the map in the pocket 
at the end of this volume. On the east its limit is practically the 
escarpment of the plateau ; but on the south and north the valley 
is geographically a continuation of the Malabar district and the 
Nambalakod amsam respectively, and its boundaries on those 
sides were at one time bones of much contention. The Xirnuiul- 
p^d of Nilambur claimed that the Nambalakod amsam, the janmam" 
rights in which (he alleged) had been transferred to him by the 
Kambalakod Yalunnavar's family (see p. 8o'9), moulded the Ouch-* 
terlony Valley and also the land on the plateau as far east aa the 
"Paikara river. On part of this land near Naduvattam Govern- 
ment war© at that period preparing to open their ousting cinchona 

1 A fuller account of the matter will ha found in the records of tlio oiKpiiry 
into Wynaad escheats in 1884. * 



GAZETTEER. . 873 

plantations j and -for this and other reasons they altogether declined CHAP. XV. 
to accept the Tirumulpad'tf contention. Mr. "Herbert Eichardson, Gululur. 
Deputy Collector of the Wynaad, in 1803 held an enquiry and """*" 

laid down a boundary bctweea Nambabtkod, Malabar, the plateau 
and tlto Ouchterlony Valley which came to be known- as 
'Bichardson's line,' Briefly, this started from the Paikara river, 

* woat westwards to a rock called A-i-faa Para, thence to the Pandi 
river, down that to the crest of the ghats, and back to Niigiri 
peak. In a .suit between Grovernment and the Tiramnlpad in tho 
District Oonrt of Calicut ia 1868 about the land at Nadnvattam 
(which Government won) this line was an important piece of 
evidence. 

G-ovoruiucnt were at first disposed to disallow tho Tirnmatpad's 
claim, to janmam i*ights in the Oaohterlony Valley, which lay- 
beyond and south-east of this lino, respecting, none the less, any 
titles obtained bond fide from him, in ignorance of the rights of the 
case, by planters. But eventually, after some years' discussion, 1 
they decided in 1878 to abandon all claim to janmabhogam in the 
Valley, and in 1888 s they admitted the Tiruniulp6d's janmam 
rights there, .Richardson's line being confirmed as the boundary 
thereof. 

The Valley formed part of Malabar up to 1878, when it was 
transferred to the Niigiri district. Its revenue settlement was 
made ia 1 889 (see p. 282) on the principles already followed in 
the case of the Niigiri Wynaad. 

The Valley is named after Mr. James Ouchterlony, a brother 
of the Ool. John Ouchterlony, U.K., who made the 1847 survey of 
the district and whose report has often been quoted above. 
James Ouchterlony was at one time a -Judge of the Principal 
Sadr Amin's Court established at Ootacamimd in 1855, and tho 
story goes that the possibilities of the Valley were pointed out to 
him in 1845 by his brother, who had been greatly struck with a 
sight of it which he had obtained from the top of the Gvtdalur 
Malai at its north-western comer. The whole of it was then an 
unbroken sheet of forest : aud its sheltered position, elevation * 

{from 4,000 to 4,500 feet above the sea on an average), consider- 
able rainfall (80 to 90 inchus), rich soil and numerous streams 
have resulted in its fully realizing the expectations formed of it, 
the ooffeo grown tliero still realizing the best prices of any in the 
Nil girls. 

* Details of which will bo found in t!ie history of the valley in tlio Settlement 
Kcporli printed in G.O„ So. 78, Eevemie, dated 37th January 1800. 

* Bcveimc* G.Os.. Noh. 17-i, dated 15(h February 1SS7, and 206. riat-od I2i,h 

* .March. 1388. 



3T4 • THE xiLaiais. 

CHAP. Xy. The Valley is now such a ditsinotivc and important tract tlia, 
GuDiLtJR, some account o£ its history will not "be out of place. On the 18th 
' December 1845 James Ouchterlony obtained from the Nilambur 
Tiruinulpad a lease of tlie eastern half of it (within certain speci- 
fied "boundaries) lor the very "small sum of Es. 1,500 down«and an 
annual rental of Rs. 20 ; and the first coflee was planted in what 
is now the Lauristou estate, in a ' field ' which is still as flourishing 
as ever. A planter from Jamaica named Wright supplied the 
technical knowledge necessary, and Mr. Ouchterlony also obtained 
an experienced partner in Mr. A. C. Campbell, who had been a 
large indigo-planter (and well known pig-sticker) in Bengal and 
whose family still holds a share in the fJuynd estate, fie was 
popularly known as ' Coffee Campbell. 5 On the 19th January 
1857 Mr, Ouchterlony obtained a second lease for another block 
(also within certain specified boundaries) to the west of the first 
on payment of an annual janmabhogam of Rs. 2,000. This 
latter deed however expressly excluded c GOO cawmes ' of ill- 
defined land granted to Captain X- H. Gf-odfrey of the Bombay 
Army, first by two Ohettis on payment of Us. 600, and subse- 
quently by the Tirumulpild (who asserted a superior title to it) 
on payment of a janmabhogam of Rs. 15. 

This grant had already occasioned disputes. Mr. O tichtorlony 
discovered that Captain Godfrey had trespassed on part of the 
land included in his first lease, and compelled him to vacate it; 
and when he obtained the second lease he entered upon a long 
course of opposition to, and litigation, with, his adversary in the 
civil, criminal aud revenue courts, concerning which amusing- 
stories are told and which was still unfinished at the time of his 
death., which took place on the last day of the jear 1875. A 
compromise was thou effected between his executors and trustees 
and Captain Godfrey, which was at length embodied in a deed 
dated 7th July 1877. This recognized Captain Godfrey as the 
leasee of the 800 cawnies, which had already been parcelled out 
into eight estates, and also of 3,000 acres in the north-west 
corner of the Valley, out of which four more properties were 
afterwards niado. The whole of these properties were eventually* 
disposed of to third parties. 

Meanwhile the remainder of the Valley had flourished greatly. 
The preliminary difficulties were immense, for though it is clear 
that in some remote past the Valley had been inhabited (the stone 
bull now in the temple near Hope estate and another broken^ono 
were found among its jungles, asd when the foundations of the 
bungalow on the Helen estate were being dug, clay images of • 



GAZETTEER. • 875 

goats, etc. j were disinterred) 1 yet when James Ouchterlony first CHAP, XY. 
came to the Valley it was uninhabited. As he himself wrote in GfoALtm. 

lSeo— 

, ' There was no resident population ■within any accessible distance ; 
no articles of food to be had near the spot ; we had no roads (properly 
so called), no police, and no law save at courts too distant to belreached. 
Labour and food had, in fact, to be imported from, a remote district, 
the first being only obtained with difficulty, and then often scared 
away by the solitariness of (he spot and an undefined dread oE evil in - 
the minds of the coolies.' 

The labour was imported from Mysore, and so was the grain 
to support it. A dep6t for the latter was built at Gundlupet in 
"Mysore and a huge store for it was constructed in the Valley 
itself, whither it was brought painfully by Brinjaris on pack- 
bullocks along the rough track which was then the only route 
between Gudalur find Mysore, and which was infested by 
Kuraraba dacoits and -wild elephants. Equal difficulty occurred 
in getting the crop, when it was picked, down to the coast. 
Elephants and camels had on one occasion to be requisitioned. 

Elephants (and other big game) were then very plentiful in the 
Valley. It is said that Oaptain G-odfrey made much of the money 
required for opening up his properties from the rewards he 
obtained for shooting them ; the paths on the Sandy Hilla estate 
are mostly mere improvements of the tracks the animals had 
made there (elephants, as is well known, have a wonderful eye 
for the best trace up a hill-side) ; and a cow was once shot from 
the verandah of the bungalow on the Hope estate, the vernacular 
name for which property is still Anaikadu, or ' the elephant 
jungle.' Elephants still come up the valley of the Pandi river to 
the lower parts of the Ouchterlony Valley in smaller number's, 
and in 1 802 one was shot by Mr. J. H. Wapshare in the aban- 
doned Montrose estate and one fell into an old elephant-pit near 
the Umballiraalai estate which the Kururabas had covered over 
in the hope of catching sambhar. Bison and spotted deer used ,, 

also to be common, hut the opening up of the Seaforth estate in 
the lower part oi the Valley cut off their only path from the 
Malabar jungles and they are now rarely seen. 

Those were the i>almy days of planting and the numerous 
"Europeans (about 20 in all) who were then employed, on the 
estates had (or made) ample leisure for shooting and other 
relaxations. Once a year they used all to spend a week at the 

1 The Tori-- and sfcono with curious marks referred to in Sewiill'S Lists (i s 
" 225} as exhfcing near Kussaeu (apparently the Casroo estate) cannot he found, 



0/b ^ THE BTLGIRZ8. 

ohap. xv„ house built by Mr. Ouchterlony at the top of the Valley (known 
Giidai^h. from, its materials as c the tin bungalow ') and in sheds built near 
at hand, where they held a series of gymkhanas. Traces of the 
race-course are still visible. 

Alter James Ouchterlony's death, however, the property fell 
on evil days. Th* 1 trustees for it were Ixis two sons, James 
William and Gordon Alexander, and the late Mr. H. Wapsbare, 
his son-in-law, who lies Lnried in the Valley. The two former 
fell out and went to law (the causes of the dispute are immaterial 
to the present account) and money which might have been spent 
on the maintenance and development ol the estates went in legal 
costs. Mr. Wapeharc, who was managing trustee, resigned ; the 
High Court appointed an Official Beceiver who draw a large 
salary, had a bungalow built for his special accommodation, but 
only visited the Valley two or three times a year; and things 
went from bad to worse until 1890, when Mr. "Wapehare was 
appointed manager again by the High Court. The two Guchter- 
lony brothers had died meanwhile. Mr. "Whpshare died in 1900 
and his son Mr. J. H. Wapshare, who has kindly supplied much 
of the material for this account of the property, was appointed 
managing trustee. 

Vigorous retrenchments of expenses were then and subse- 
quently made 3 the European staff being reduced to four and the 
annual cost of supervision, management and working' cut down 
from about five lakhs to about three. The Ouchterlony Trust 
is now oaii of difficulties. Five-sixteenths of it is still in court 
and the three beneficiaries at the remaining eleven-sixteenths 
(less certain estates which are held jointly with other proprie- 
tors) are Mr, James Quchterhmy'a two daughters (Mrs. Johnson 
and Mrs. Wapshare) and the widow of his son Colonel Edward 
Ouchterlony, JR. (J. A. The crop in 1905 waB as much as 650 tons 
of coffee and 140,000 lb. of tea, in growing and picking which 
2j000 ooolies were employed. Oeara, castilloa and par.i ruober 
are also being tried in certain estates. The Trust has its own 
tea factory in the Valley and its own. coffee-earing works at 
Mamalli on the Beypore river near Calicut. Its property 
comprises over 5.000 acres of opened land in as many as 
fourteen separate estates, besides a large area not cultivated. 
The biggest estate is Guyncl, an unbroken area of coffees in 
fall bearing measuring over 800 acres. The pulpiiig-house on 
this, which most be the biggest in South India, was opened 
by Lord Jjytton, when Viceroy, in, 1877, as a tablet over the 
entrance commemorates. Several Governors of Madras have „ 
also specially visited the Valley. At Gnynd is its post office. 



GAZETTEER. . 877 

Besides the estates carved oat of Captain Godfrey's land and CHAP. XV. 

4&ose which, belong to the Ouchterlony Trust, there are five G^dalUr, 
(Walwocd, Balmadies, Seaforth, G-lenvans and Barwood) which 

„were sold "by the Trust to others. 

tip to 1890 nearly all the coffee was grown in the open ; but 
in that year shade trees (mainly Grevillea) were planted to check 
the ravages of the borer ; and most of the Valley now looks 3 from 
above, as like an unbroken forest as it did before any of it was 
opened up. Shady paths and roads innumerable cross and 
re-cross in. every direction under the trees, streams and rivers 
pour down from the plateau to the east (in several cases over 
beautiful falls) and the place is one of the most picturesque areas 
in the district. A. bridle-path runs down to it from Naduvattam 
past { the tin bungalow ' and a District Board cart road enters 
it from Gudalur, crossing the P&ndi river by a girder bridge 
erected m 18B9 at a cost of Es. 17,000. 

Pandalur t Fifteen miles from Grudalur along- the Vayitri road. 
Its sudden elevation during the gold-boom of 1879-82, and its 
equally sudden collapse, have been referred to on pp. 17 and 19. 
It was the head-quarters of the Head Assistant Collector during 
part of the boom, and he lived at the Balcarres bungalow, on a 
hillock north of the road to BeVala, and held his office in the 
house just west of and above the Pandalur bazaar, which is still 
known in consequence as 'the Outcherry bungalow.' The real 
centre of the mining enterprise was Devaia, Pandalur being, as 
a report of the time said, ' nothing but the mushroom offspring 
of mining expectations and jobbery;' but Pandalur contained 
more than one sanguine spirit who confidently believed that it 
was destined to become a considerable town. In 1881 it was 
divided into suitable sites by the manager of the Phoenix 
Company (within whose land it lay) and a rent of no less than 
Be. 1 per week was charged for plots ! 5 feet by 30. A church, 
a bank, a town hall and a piped water-supply were all projected, 
a&d a race-course was laid out round the adjoining paddy«flat 
and Sky Meetings were held. Picnics, lawn-tennis parties and 
dances were for long the order of the day, and angry shareholders 

.afterwards bitterly complained that it would have been better if 
the time and money lavished on these had been devoted to work 
upon the mines. The place is now reduced to a few huts, its 
former race-course is barely traceable, and (except three or four) 
the 1 houses which were ouoe so numerous in and around it have 
been demolished for the sake of their materials. 



*8 



S7» 



INDEX. 



Abbe" Dubois 92, 170 nois. 

Abkari, 286-290. 

Airus yrecatorms ateds, H'<2, 235. 

Acacias, 20, 213, 357, 

Acheni, 100, 101. 

Adam. Sir Frederick, 120, 333, 33tf, 362, 

Mr. W. P., 3(10. 
Additional Sessions Judge, 292. 
Administration, of land revenue, 267- 

285; of justice, 292-237- 
Adoption, lot',159. 
Adultery, 160, 159,101. 
Agriculture, 163-207. 
Akilinda Aiyar, Mr. U., 290, 
AH Khfi.ii, 330. 

Allan, Mr. Alexander, 318 note. 
Allspice, 28, 207. 
Alpha Gold Mining Co., 15, 18. 
Amaranth, 165, 188. 
American Mission, 137. 
Ampthiil, Lord, 235, SOS. 
Ararat Mab-fil cattle, 28. 
Anaikattj/29, SO. 345. 
Andropogo% sehss'tmnthns, 145, 
Anikorai, 864. 
Animiata, 124, 
A njarafeandi, 171. 
Anogeissws, 218, 220. 
Anana cheriimlier, 200, 
Antelope, 32. 

Apples, 113, 193, 206, 324 
Apricota, 195, 206. 
■Arak<5d, 106, 107, 151, 340. 
Aralatti, 351. 
Arata Para, 373. 
AravankStd, brewery, 167, 289,312; chat- 

iram, 236; cordite factory, 286, 283; 

312 i distillery, 287 j described, 312, 
Aravenghat, 31 3. 
Aibattraot, Mr.A./., Sfll. 
Arrwnu, 227, 335. 
Armstrong, Sir Richard, 342. 
Arnold, Sir Edwin, S29. 
Arrack, #S7. 

Arts and Industries, 232. 
Ashley engineering works, 318. 
AthiUrihatti, 300, 316, 330. 
AttapaOi village, 39. 
Australia, "butts imported from, 2H; trees. 

introduced from, 26, 27, 213, 341. 



Avalanche, bungalow, cairns and barrow » 
near, 96 • Pioneer camp near, 117 ; road 
from Ootaeamund to, 232, 237 ; travel- 
lers' bungalow at, 233 ; proposed mili- 
tary station near, 341 ; description of 
site of, 345, hill, 6, 148, 347 ; stream, 
9, 41, 43, 14^, 347. 

Avenues, 210, 236. 

',Ayan ' grass allowance, 269. 

Asarams, 94, 98, 145, 147. 



Baba Boodeii, 170. 

B&bington, Major I). M,, 313 note. 

EadagaB, cultivation of, 4,165-168, 193; 
rare to the weet of Dodabetta, 4 ; men- 
tioned by early Roman. Catholic visitors, 
94, 105 ; their name for cromlechs, 99 ; 
and their connection with then), 100; 
growth of , 124; proportion of females 
among, 3.24; language of, 124, 128,120; 
described, 128-135 % K6taa darker than, 
135 ; divorce among, 138 s attend festi- 
vals to K<5ta gods, 138 ; funeral cere- 
monies of, 137, 153, 155 1 their dread 
of sorcery, 143, 154; dress of, 152 j 
Karnmbijai murdered by, 155; their 
relations with the other hill tribes, 157 ! 
land occupied by JK6ti farm restored to, 
203 j destruction of sholas by, 208-209 j 
aided in the recapture c£ escaped 
Chinese convicts, 263 ; schools for, 265 j 
conditions under which they culti- 
vated land, 270; lease of T6da patfca lands 
to, 272; extent of holdings of, 274 j 
opium poppy formerly grown by, 290 j 
their mode of wing opium, 291 ; shrine 
at Berganm of, 318; sections of, 316, 
324, 339 : their story regarding- Hulikal 
Drug, 329 ; e-vaugeliBkio work among, 
332 j sacrifices of, 334; fee-walking at 
Meier attended by, 339 ; ' Rangasvltni 
Bettus established by, 340 ; their former 
settlement near Wellington, 343 ; and 
oid settlement at Timeri, 364 j sug- 
gested colonization of 'Wyna&d by, 36S; 
brought thereto by the Nclliilaja 
family, 370 

Bagaall, Major '1'. US., 43, 



380 



i » » i x . 



Baikie.Hr., on Messrs. Wtsisb and Kin&ers- 
ley'g expedition, 108 ; appointed Medi- 
cal officer of Ootacamund, 117 ; and 
Ms report on i(, 119; his book on the 
Wilgiris, 119 ; refers bo the Gfidalur 
ghat, 234; summarises the early re- 
ports on the plateau, 247, 248 ; refers to 
Ooonoor, 322, 323 5 the T6*daB, 320 ; and 
K6ti, 331 j pioposes a hill station for 
the army, 343 •, on the tombs in Welling- 
ton cemetery, 344 ; Avalanche, 346 ; 
and Billikai,' 34S s Secretary to CK>tn- 
canmud Club, 362 ; on ^ispara, 803. 

Baker, General, 393, 197, US. 

Balcarres estate, 18, 283, 377. 

Ballads, 135. 

Balsams, 108, 3 i8. 

Bamboo, 6, -22~->3, 109, Slii-20. 

Banagndi sbola, 101, 338 

Baodipet, 3G8. 

Bandy Sbola, 214,, 316. 

Baagulor-e, 199, 230. 

Bangui Tappal, 232, 

Bank of Madras, 283. 

Bannimai'a, 350, 370. 

Banthurai, 343. 

Baptists, 125. ,„ 

Barley, 108, 164, 165, 167, 203. 

Barli river, 246, 316. 

Barllyar, mangosteens fit, 28 ; rubber 
trees at, 190, 191 ; Government Garden 
at, 206; garden of Sir. Thomas in, 
210 j chafctram at, 236 ; account of, 316. 

Barlow, Sir Seorge, 384 } Sir Biehard, 42, 
284. 

Barra stream, 34!). 

Barron, Captain, 364. 

Barrows, 94, 98-98. 

Basel Lutheran Mission, 127; its schools, 
26S j bead-quarters, 332 ; and chapels, 
334, 364. 

Basket boats, 220, 235. 

Bats, 34. 

Bavoramayya, 372. 



Beadnell, Captain, 42. 

Bear Mil, 6, 348. 

Bears, 81, 205. 

Beauolaxr, Father J. B., 128. 

BSdavs, 350, 370, 

Bee-keeping, 200. 

Beer, 228, 289. 

Bench courts, 122, 292. 

Benbapo nursery, 207. 

Berrae forest, 8, 32, 210, S30; 

Benson, Sir Ralph, 274. 

Bentinok, Lord William, 302. 

Benza, Dr., on the Sispara ghat, 233, 347, 

363; the early days of Coonoor, 82S; 

ths Avalanche, 346, 348; and the view 

from Mukarfci Beak, 364. 
Bfoganni, 318. 
Bettiah, 3?2. 
BettieuU, 349. 
Battmnand, 348, 845. 



Beyporp, river, 10, 233 ; town, 240. 

Bhavani river, boimdaiy of the district, 2 ; 
irrigation reservoirs for, 7, 381 ; Moyar 
falls into, 9, 82, 226 j fish in, 38, 39, 43 ; # 
Irtilas in the valley of, 152 ; basket 
boats plying across. 229; bridge across. 
221). ' , 

Bhnjanga Haja Arasu (two persons), *70, 
373. 

' Bhurty ' system, 268, 260, 274, 27S. 

Bidie, Surgeon-Major, 35, 36 note, 175, 
218. 

Bikkapattxmand, 209. 

EiUikuI, bill, 349 j village, erotic iish in 
the tank in, 30 j bungalows built at, 
115; tea, grown in, 178; silkworm mil. 
tnrpat, 204; !><vth from fSi^nr to, 230; 
travellers' bungalow at, 230 ; described, 
34S. 

Billitharta holla, 9, 44. 

Bimakabill, 345. 

Bira Baya'-nid, 91. 

Biroh, Surgeon Do Burgh, 247, 289, 333, 
327, 341. 

Birds, 36, 77-83. * 

Birmukkn hill, 345. 

Bishopsdown, gold working near, 12, 357 ; 
■English farming tried near, 112 ; bought 
by Mr. La a hi tig ton, 117, 202 ; tea estate 
on, 178 j proposed suburb near, 311. 

Bison, 32, 375. 

Bison swamp, 32, 232. 

Blackberry, 198, 

Black Bridge, 216, 342. 

Blackwood, G, 26, 27, 213, 214, 217-221 
fas smt. 

BIftBford, Mr. E. F., 10. 

Bliss, Sir Henry, 360 ; Lady, 360. 

Blue gum, 26. 164. 202, 213-218 passim, 
357. 

Boer war, 256, 284 ; prisoners of, 332. 

Bombay castle, 359. 

Bombay House, 118, 120, 269. 

Bombay salt, 286. 

Boopalans, 97. 

Botany, 19-28, 45-74. 

Bottlewallab, Mr. P. ST., 328. 

Boundaries of the district, 2, 

Brandie, Dr., 217. 

Brandt, Mr. I\, 284. 

Breadfruit, 28, 207. 

JJi-eeks, Mr. .1. W,. founder of the Ootaoa« 
mund Hnnt, 36 ; hie work on ancient 
monuments, 95; on dzdrams and kiBt- 
raens 98 ; the visit of Portuguese 
priests, 105; Kotas, 135 note; Irolaa, 
153 note; and Kuruiobas, 154 note; 
samples of Nllgiri tea sent Home at the 
suggestion of, 179 ; forests in the di%- 
triot transferred to the care of, 211; 
school founded in memory of, 258 ; 
career of, 284} on Halurn, 330; caim% 
in Billikai Mil dug hy t 349 ; tomb of, 
360,- STeilgherrv Archery Ohib started 
by, 362. 



381 



Brooks' Memorial School, 258, 

Biide price, 136, 153, 161. 

Bridges, aorosa the Kallar, 8, 220 j the 

i, Bhavani, 118, 229 ; the Coonoor streams 
229 ; the Hoyar, 231 ; the Sig&r river, 
231 ; the Paikara river, 235 j and the 

, Avalanche stream, 347 ; damage by 
fitiwms to, 245, 246. 

Briggs, Major, S36, 337. 

Brmjarie, 375. 

British brewery, 280, 

Bromley, Captain Thomas, 32V. 

Brougk Smyth, Mr., his report on the 
Wynaad gold mines, 15, 8(37 note. 

Brougbton. Mr. John, 185. 

Brown, Mr., 171. 

Buchanan, Dr., 106. 152, 170. 

Buckingham, Duko of, 238, 35S. 

Buffaloes, 28, 138, 137, 144. 

Building stone, 12. 

Burial places, ancient, 06. 

Burnfoot lako, 11, 41,43. 

Burton, Lieutenant, on the antiquities of 
the hills, 95 ; discovery of the Nilgiria, 
107; disbelief in the reports of early 
visitors, 110; filenview hotel, 319; 
Coonoor, 323; Dimhatti, 327 j Hulikal 
Drug, 328, 329; Billikal, 348; and 
Fairlavms, 357. 

Butcher, Mr., 33. 

Butuga, 91. 



Cairns, 94,96-98,349. 

Caldwell, Dr., 136. 154. 

Caliout, Catholic priests from, 105 ; coffee- 
curing at, 177 j rubber trees in, 191 j 
roads to, 232, 233, 236, 337; wooden 
house made at, 337 ; detachments for, 
£43. 

Gametic, 178, 180. 

Camels, 375. 

Campbell, Captain, 214; Mr. A. O., 374. 

Camphor, 28, 207. 

Canarese, 124. 

Canker, 193, 200. 

Cannanore, 342. 

Canning, Countess, 319, 336. 

Cantonment "Magistrate, Wellington, 12'2, 
292, 341. 

Ourp, 9, 38, 39, 42,349, 
' Caryota itmta, 22, 286. 

Casamajor, Mr. 6k ,T„ 331. 
■Castes, 128-102,293. 

Castle Brewery, 289, 81 a. 

Oasfcor, 151. 

Cat, 33. 

Cattle, 28. 

Ca^le disease, 28, 154, 

Cattle-lifting, 91. 

Cauvery river, 7, 362. 

Caves of BeHUd, 334. 

CoRi'i rubber, 190, 878. 



Cemeteries, 322, 337, 338, 344, 359. 
Ceylon, potatoes exported to, 167 ; coffee 
cultivation in, 172 ; coffee pests in, 174 j 
robber plants obtained from, 190 , re- 
port on rubber yield in, 191; coffee 
plants obtained from, 338. 
Chagi Bayalnad, 91. 
Uhamberlain, Kev. Jacob, 1 27. 
Chamois, 33. 
Chamois Hill, 340. 
Ohandras^khara Raja Araau, 372. 
Chapels, 138. 
Chaplains, 125, 321. 
Chapman honeyplimt, 202. 
Ohitur Kuttai Dinnai bill, 37ii. 
Choppatodu, 191. 

Cl)6rain.badi, mica mining at, 13; mbber 
trees near. 191 ; reserved forest round, 
219; road to, 236, 237 ; police station at, 
296 ; described, 366. 
Oherankod, 280. 
Cherimoyer, 200, 206. 
Cherries, 197. 
Chestnut, 200. 
Chettia, 158. 368. 
Chikk&nalu, 368 note- 
Chinchon, Countess of, 182. 
Chinese convicts, 26S. 
Chinua Kttnnnr, 349, 
Chisholra, Mr,, 263. 
Choladib.idge, 236, 237. 
Cholera, 253,304. 
Christians, 125, 257. 
Christie, Assistant Surgeon, 178, 334. 
Chrome tanning, 21 8. 
Church of England Zenana mission, 260. 
Church Missionary Society, 118, 126, 258, 

326, 
Churches at. Coonoor, 126, 127. 321, 322 ; 
Kotagiri, 127. 337; Ootacamimd, 125, 

126, 258, SB0 ; and Wellington, 344. 
See- also St. Stephen's Chuioh, 

Cinchona, area under, 164, 170; aeoottnt 
of, 182-190; export of, 323; Govern- 
ment plantations of, 2S5 ; damage by 
hail storme to, 245. 

Cinnamon, §8, 207- 

Citron, 200, 206. 

Civil courts, 259, 292. 

Civil Orphan Asylums, 263. 

Cleghora, Dr., 179, 210. 

Cleveland, General S. W\, 334, 

Climate, 247-253. 

Olive, Mr. K. H., 335. 

Clove, 28, 207. 

Club, at Gofcaeamimd, 118, 361 j at 
Coonoor, S20, 

Club Hill. 5, 357. 

Cookburn, Mr. M. D., 337, 338 notes 
Mrs. Catherine, 8, 33S j Miss M. B. L,, 

127, 337 note; Lord Chief Justice 
Henry, 338. 

Cockerel!, Mr. J. R„ Sfl, 284. 
Coekev's Course, 36, 284, 
Coeo% 28, 207. 
Co&Bo 1330th, 194. 



Coffee, estate, 121 ; influence on popuU- i 
tion of imln&try in, 12j3 ; area under, , 
164, 170 ; liinr! suited for cultivation of. , 
189; account of, 170-177; disease; ' 
174-170; export o£ 3 223 j damage by i 
hail storms to. 2-15; theft of, 293; [ 
walking-sticks ins.de of wood oi', 816; ! 
cultivated near Kotagivi, 338; in. ! 
Kulaktmibai, 339 ; and in the Ouchter- I 
lony valley, 373, 376. | 

Coffee -curing, 376. j 

Coinibatore, 1 25, 126, 177, 287. ; 

Collectors of the Nllgiris, 122, 2ti4-5. ; 

Commissioners of the ZWilglrid, 122, 2S4. i 

Communication, means oi', 220-241. 

Ooagrevo, Captain K., on ancient monu- 
ments, 95 , an ancient tree, 97; origin 
of the Todas, 1 39 nnto ; Hulikal Drag', 
329; UdaiyaKaya Kuta, 333 ; cavea of 
Billiki, a3i; tmd ^anjanad, 358. 

Conifers, 215, 

Goninghani, Captain, 235, 

Oonnemara, Lord, 235, 2S5. 

Contract distillery supply system, 287. 

OouvalescontaSpot.lSO, 131, 296, 341,342. 

Gonvenb Hill, 125- 

Convict labour, 184. 

Gooly Mission, 127. 
Coonoor ghat, 117, 234, 228, 220, 216. 
Ooonoor river, described, 8 ; oleotric power 
from, 238 j aooda in, 245, 246; drainage 
oi Ooonoor town led into, 300 ; cascade 
on and bridge over, 318. 
Ooonoor taluk, 3J 2 -344. 

Coonoor toivii, gold mines near, 12; oxotfc 
feroas hi and about, 20 ; growth of s 118, 
123; early sketches and plana of, 119 j 
chaplain at, 125 j churches at, 1 20, 127 ; 
American Mission work in, 127 ; 
coffee first planted in the district in, 
171 ; coffee bug in the oetatoB below, 
174; tea -planning near, 17S S 179 s 
English fruit-trees grown near, 103, 
195-199 passim ; silkworm culture at, 
204; Kaverrnnent Garden ak, 206; Sim's 
Park at, 206 ; felling of the sh&as near, 
310 ; protection of -woods in, 211 ; plan- 
tations near, 216 ; fuel dlpdt at, SI 1 ? -. 
industries in, 222 j market at, 224 ; road 
to, 228, 229, 237 ; i-raveHem' bungalow 
at, 228) bridge at, 229; railway to, 
287, 246 ) rainfall in, 2i2, 24:3, 244, 243 j 
ftoods in, 245; metoorologienl ubraorva- 
fcions in, 251 ; break of journey recom- 
mended at, 252 ; vaccination compulsory 
in, 253 ; Pasteur Institute in, 254; 
hospital at, 254; municipality at, 254, 
299 ; schools in, 2C8, 280, 204 ; rules for 
the acquisition of land in, 274; Head 
Assistant Collector at, 282, 29i; arrack 
Warehouse in, 287 ; magistrates at, 292 ; 
sub-registrar at, 292 j bench courts at, 
383 j police station in, 298; sab- jail at, 
297 j municipality, 290 j market at, 300 j 
water-supply and draiaage schemes for, 
300; deiertbed, 317-24. 



Coonoorbetta, 5, 31ft, 

Coopal, 14. 

Cordite Factoiy, electric [lower for, 8,330 , 
cordite exported from, 223 , railway* 
station at, 240 ; saltpetre nsed in, 286 ; 
not included in Wellington cantonment, 
299 j described, 312 ; tombstone within, * 
344. 

Cotton, Major, 213, 231. 

Cotton, Mr. J, .T., Inscriptions on Madras 
Tomhshy, 337. 

Craig, Captain John, 335. 

Craigmore, chattramat. 236, 

Crowe, Major, 117, IIP, 203, 232, 302. 

Crime, 293. 

Criminal castes, 293 

Criminal courts, 292. 

Crol«y, Mr,, 259. 

Cromlechs, 94, 95, 99-101, 135; at 
Kongarai, 331 ; Jakkaneri, 338 ; Chisna 
Knrrafir. 349; Masiaigudi, 361; and 
■^tkxradah, 353. 

Drops, 103. 

Cross. Mi\, 183- r 

Crows, 112. 

Orutfcenden, Mr. E. K., 338. 

O alien, General. 336. 

Cultivation methods, 105. 

Currants, 197, 206. 

Ourzon, Lord, 320. 

Cy presses, 215, 217- 

D 

Oaooity, 293 

Dairies, 141. 

Dallimjiii UUfoha, 21a 

DalliouBie, Lord, 183, 319, 336. 

Dancing, 130, 152. 

Bantiayakimko't! ai ialuk, 207. 

Dannayakankdttai village, proposed irri- 
gation reservoir near, 7 ; inscription at, 
92 , visited by Dr. Buchanan, 106 ; Mr. 
Keys, 107 ; and Mr. Sullivan, 108 ; path 
to Dcnad irom, 226 ; property of hJIl- 
inen plundered and removed to, 267; 
curse pronounced on, 331 ; Malaik6"fca 
garrison relieved from, 350. 

DannayakaB, 82. 

Date plum, 19B. 

Dayis, Mr., 289. 

I'avisuis, Mr. John, 193, 1h9 ; Sir Jlsm-y, 
359. 

Dawson, Mr H. 1?,., 171, 323. 

Day, Dr. Francis, 37-40, 322, 349, 

DeMontmoreney, CoU-nel, 198, 

Dealtry, Archdeacon, 127, 263, 360. 

Deer, 82, 16B, 218, 281,375. 

D^nad, early visitors passed through, ?07. 
108, 226 i temporary bungalow at, 112 ; 
school for hill people at, 1 13 ; describee" , 
324. , * 

Denison. Sir William, 179, 284, 33S>, 

Deputy tabsildatB, 110, 122, 280, 292. 

Drfrbetta peak, 6, 348. . 



3S3, 



Dernaad, 325. 

DeV&la, scenery round,!-!; search foe gold 
near, 14, 15, 377 ; ita flourishing conrli- 

* tion in 1880, 17 ; present condition, 19 ; 
chattram at, 286 j rainfall in, 242, 24-3 ; 
hospital at, 254; Head Assistant Col- 

* lector atj 282 ; police station in, 29G , 
described, 366. 

Devalakdttai, 3S6, 367. 
Devangae, 370. 
Devarayapatna, 93, 351. 
Devarayapatnani hobli, 3 0*. 



DevarwhnJa, 223, 36&. 

Devaahola Mil, 5, 237, 348. 

Devil's gap, 364. 

Dhall, 151. 

Dimhatti hill, 5. 

Djmhatti Tillage, early visits to, 10S, 
109, 226 j bridle-path to, 109, 226 ; 
early settlements m, 110, 335 j Mr. 
Sullivan's garden at, 111; -path to 
Shollr from, 112, declined niter open- 
ing of Ooonoor ghat, US ; early sketches 
and JjlahB of, 119; Mr. Lushing ton's 
bungalows at, 119, 126: travellers' 
bungalow at, 227; described, 325 

Dindignl-Podamir Kailway, 24,1. 

Diseases, of cattle, 28; of coffee, '74, of 
apple trees, 183 ; effect of the climate on 
certain, 251, 252 j prevalent in the 
district, 253. 

Dispensary, 254. 

Distillery, 287. 

District Board, 236, 298. 

District Jail, 116,296, 

District Judge, 292. 

District Magistrate, 292, 293. 

District Miirtsif, 283, 292. 

District Registrar, 297. 

Divisional charges, 282. 

Divorce among hill oaates, 132,3.86. 350, 
153, 156, 159. 

Dodabetta, peak, S, 357 ; range, 11, 12, 
243,348; reservoir, 43,308, 809 j estate, 
179, 184, 185, 188; obseivatory, 251. 

Dodduro, 101, 338. 

Dolmena, 95. 

Dolphin's ^ose„ S, 237, 319. 

Domestic animals, 28-29. 

Dormer, General Sir James, 120. 

D'Orsay, Count, 331, 

Bowiiliom estate, 167. 193-200 pasxim. 
. Drainage Behemes, 300, 306. 

Dress, of Badagos, 130; Krftae, 135; 
T(idas, MO; Irnliis, 152 j Kuruinbas, 
154.; Mandfidoa Chettis, 159; Wvnaad- 
au Chettie, 160; and Paniyans, 162. 

Drunkenness, 287, 288. 

Dry crops, 165, 169. 

Dry funeral, 137, 147. 

B%n, Captain, 113, 114, 116, 213. 

Dorian, 28, SO?. 

Bynaudj S2S. 

DyBeisterr, 251, 



■ E 

Earth salt, 286. 

Eastment, Captain, 11.8. 

Eastwick, Professor, 366. 

Ebban&d, 32, 345. 

Edavanna, 14. 

Education, 257-266. 

Elephants, found, in the district, 29 ; 
datnag,e to cultivation by, 169, 279, 281 { 
tiped for dragging timber, 220, 221; on 
the Sigrlir ghat road, 231; th.e Sispara 
ghat road, 23^; and in the Ouchterlony 
Tallffv, «76. 

131k Hill, 5, 32, 357. 

Elphinsfone, Lord, 120,331, 341. 

Emerald valley, 9, 43, 34G. 

Enfcerio fever, 303. 

Erevappa, Uanga king, 91, 

JSrk'edv, hottultatkb, 270. 

Escheat enquiry in the Wynaad, 280, 

Estates, deaeriptive memoirs of, 276, 

Eucalyptus. See Blue gum. 

Eugenia tree, 115, 208. 

Evergreen forests, 21. 

Excommunication, 132, 

Exotic birds, 37 1 and fish. 39. 

Exports, 223. 

Eye diseases. 252. 



FaMa.WB.fi, 12, 357. 

Famines, 245, 253. 

Farewell, Colonel, 234, 306, 308. 

Farms, Government, 202-204. 

Fauna, 28-44. 

Ferguson, Mr. T. 3., 191. 

Ferreira, Jaoome, 94, 105, 

Fever, 253, 303. 

Pigs, 199, 306. 

Filberts, 203. 

Finicio, Jesuit priest, 94. 

Fire-walking, 135 ; atTudur, 316; Denitf, 

325 ; Takkaneri, 339 ; and Melfir, 339. 
Firewood plantations, 213. 
Fish, 37-44. 160. 
Floods, 245. 
Flora, 19-28, 45-74. 
Foote, Mr Enice, 95. 
Forbes, Mr. Or. S„ 336 ; Mr. G, W,. 336. 
Foreign liquor, 288. 
Forests, Irnlas collect the produce of, 152 ; 

area of, 3 63; in tho Wynaad, 169; 

described, 208-221; settlement of, 273, 

274, 280. 
Foubcrt, Father B),, 126. 
'Franrjoe & Co,, US, 327, 828, 359. 
Francis, Colonel P. A!., 321, 322. 
Fraser, Genera) J. S , 3155 ; Lieu ten aut>, 

335. 
Freud, Captain, 133., 197, 290. 
I Frendu, 816, 217. 
! Frere, Mr. JEafcley, 337- 
I Frnitteeas, 192-200, 



384 



Suohsias, 28. 

Fnasral ceremonies, of Badagas, 132-4 ; 

Ko'fcae, 13?; Todas, 145 j Irulas, 153; 

Knrambas, 155, 156 ; Maedadan Chettis, 

159; Wynaadau Chettw, 160 s andPani. 

yans, 3.61. 



Gaganaolinkkikottai, 329 nolo 

Gajalhatti pass, 3, 90, 241. 

Gamble, Mr., 218, 220, 

frame and Fish. Preservation Act, ;S3. 

Game animals, 29-36, 2GG. 

Game Association, 33, 34, 37 

Game birds, 37, 206. 

Gangs kings, 93, 

Ganja, 291. 

Garden crops, 185, 188. 

Gardens, Government, 201-207. 

Garlics, 108. 

Gathada halla, 8. 

Gam-,32. 

Gell, Bishop, 322. 

Gentians, bine, 34:8. 

Geology, 10-13. 

Geraniums, 28. 

Gibson, General J. T., 336, 337. 

Glen, Dr., 346, 

Glearock Company, 191. 

Goaneae missions, 125. 

Goat, wild, 32. 

Godfrey, Captain T. H., 374, 375. 

Gold-mining, 12-19, 338, 356. 

Gooseh«rry, 108, 197. 

Gough, Major- General Sir Hugh and 
Lady, 231. 

Gow, Mr. C. E-, 333, 385 note. 

Government, "EpigrapHist, 297. 

Government l?arma and Gardens, 202-207. 

Government gardens, 204-207 ; at Ootaoa- 
nvtmd,40,41, 198, 

Grant, Mr., 259, 270, 272. 

Grant Duff, Sir M. E., 230, 235, 285, 859. 

Grass land, 24, 169, 273. 274, 280. 

Gray, Mr. Charles, 'IBS, 190-200 pasa.w, 
320. 

Gray's Hill, Ooonoor, 302. 

Grazing, 219, 221. 

Grazing grounds, 33, 212, -Jl8, 277. 

Grazing patta,^ 20ft, 209. 

Green funeral, 1 1.5~1 4?. 

Grevillea trees. 175, 377, 

Griffith, Mr. 1. R. : 337. 

Grigg's District Manual, on earlv visitors 
to the plateau, 106. 108 ; BEidagas, 130, 
135 note ; weights and meaiiureh, 224 
note: Lawrence Asylum, 261 notes 
oarly efforts for education of indigenous 
castes, 265 note ; village headmen, 295 ; 
Fdaiys, Baya K6"ta, 333 and Mmkarti 
Peak, 354. 

Grose, Mr. James, 360, 

Guavas, 199. 

Gttdalfir ghat, 116, 224, 233* 



Gtidatf* taluk, 365-877. 

Gndalor town, nature of jungle round, ; 
chapel and priest at, 126 ; church. at,< 
127; K6t& village near, 235 j market at, 
224; roads to, 233, 235, 230, 237, 377; 
travellers' bungalow at, 234; chattram 
at, 236 j proposed railway to, 240 ; 
rainfall in, 242, 243, 244 , plagne in, 
253, hospital at, 254; Head Assistant 
Collector in, 283: bench court at, 292 ; 
magistrates in, 292 ; deputy tahsildar 
and district mnnsif a f , 292 , sub- 
registrar at, 292 ; police station in, 296 ; 
sobj*il at, 297 : described, 368. 

Gudihada, 334, 

Gudu, 13G, 143, 152, 154, 270. 

Guhir hill, 7- 

Gonahrpet, 230, 375. 

Garuvajja, 339. 

Gymkhana Olub, Ootacamnad, 362, 



Hadfield, Mr. Edward, 32; Colour 32. 

Hadiabettahill, 7. 

Haidar Ali, 102, 367, 329. 

Eail-stormB, 245. 

Haines, Staff Surgeon, 113, 114, 116, 117. 

Haji Fafetr Muhammad Sait. Khan 
Bahadur A. £., 256, 34S. 

Half way House, 240, 290, 299. 

Halihola land, 165. 

Hahiru, 101, 330. 

Hamilton, General Douglas, 30, 32 ; 
General Richard, 83, 266. 820. 

Hamilton's chattram, 236. 

Hares, 29. 

Harknosa, Captain, on the early monu- 
ments, 95 ; his hook on the Nilgira, 119 j 
on the Badaga marriage system, 132 ; 
thoTo'das, 139 note; the Irulas, 152, 
Dinjhatfci, 820; Hulikal Drug and 
Mataik6t<i,, 328, 330, S50 ; Udaiya. Eaya. 
K6tn, 333 ; and Billikal, 348. 

Harr!s s Lord, 336. 

Hatch, Dr„ 18. 

Haveloek, flir Arthur, 235, 285. 358. 

1 Hawkeyo's ' letters, 33, 266, 320. 

Hayden, Mr., 18. * 

Haalewood, Colonel, 335. 

Head Assistant Collector and Magistrate, 
1.22, 292, 324, 377. 

Hebich, Eav. Samuel, 128- 

Heiraba hill, 5. 

Hedge-hog, 34. 

Heliotropes, 28. 

Hemp drugs, 290. 

Hill MnaicipalitieB Act. 80S. 

Hills, 3-7. 

HioiigaJa, hill, 345 ; range, 348. 

Hindus, education among, 257. 

Hindustani, 12&. a 

History of the district, 00-122. 

H'lainrc, 101, 330. 

Hobart Park, 857, 382-, 863. 



$35 



Habart road, 319. 

Hobart School, 260. 

Hodgson, Mr. H.P., SG, 192 

3goe tax t 270. 

EbWudln, 96. 

Honey, 200, 201, 218. 

rfloneWell, Mr. Samuel, 167, 389. 

Hookar (cinchona) plantation, 184, 183, 

Hooper, Mr. D., 1S6. 

Hope, river, 43 ; estate, 374, 375. 

Horask61a, 12. 

Horses, 29. 

Hospitails, 254-256, 

Hotels, at Coonoor, 193, 319, 324, atOota- 

camund, 118, 126. 
Hough's tetters, on early monuments, 95 ; 

and on a Banitarium on the Heilgherries, 

1 3 4 ; do nut refer to Gudalfir ghat, 233 ; 

on Dimhatti, 326; Kdtagiri, 335; and 

MaHraigndi, 353 . 
Hounds, the Gotacamund, 35. 
Houses of natives, 1 29, 130, S6S. 
Hoys&Io-s, 91. 
HuguenjSiJ*H.Ij., 14, 
Hulhatfci, 348, 349. 
Hulikal, Drag, height of, 5 , fori, there 

attributed to Ummafcfcu> Rejas, 94 j and 
. garrisoned by Tipu, 102 ; figures in 

Toda mythology, 143; faces Coonoor, 

318; described, 828; village, 127,328; 

same aa HuliBakal, 368 note. 
Hulisakal, 368. 
Hnnt, the, Qotacamimd, 35. 
Huasaraabad, 830, 350. 
Hutohras, Colonel, 337. 



tbex, S3, 34, 348. 

Immigration, 123. 

Imports, 223. 

Inam lauds, 276. 

Income-tax, 291. 

Indian Glenrook Company, 13, 19, 192, 

Industries, 222. 

Infanticide, 149, 352, 354. 

Ingapoya, 101. 

Inscriptions, 90-93 pitssi-m, 100, 331. 

Ipecacuanha plant, 20C, 207. 

Iron ore, 7, 12, 13, 346, 35 J. 

Irulas, names of villages of, 5 ; their namo 
for oroinleohs, GO ; stones pur. in. 
cromlechs by, JI01 ; described by Dr. 
Buchanan, 106 ; proportion of females 
among', 12*; mentioned in T<5da 
legends, 129 ; described, 151 j reeem- 
Itlanc-e of Kurunibas fee, 154; their 
relations -with the other hill tribes, 1 57 ; 
pujaris m Eangaevami temple, 340; 
olay for eeot marks of, 341, 
49 



Jack-trees, 8, 151. 
Jackatallah, 342. 
Jackson, Mr. A.B., 215. 
Jago, Colonel, 36. 211, 220. 
Jails, 296. 

Jakkaufsri, cromlech in, 99, 101 : Lieuten- 
ant Maopherson's bungalow at, 109 j 
travellers' bungalow at, 227 ; fire- 
walking at, 325 ; sacrifice offered by the 
Badagas of, 334; described, 338. 
Jakkata, 101. 
Jakkatakatnhai, 838, 
Jakkatalla, 108, 271, 323, 342. 
Jalap plant, 200. 
Jamieson, Mr., 205, 207. 
Janmabhogam, 279, 280. 
Janmis, 161. 
-lava, 35, 182, 188, J86. 
Jervis, Captain, on thti visit of Messrs. 
Wbisb, and Sindersloy, 108 j on the 
formation of Ootaoaniirad bazaar, 118 ; 
his bock on the plateau, 119; on the 
Dimhatti bungalows, 326 j Dk. Baikie's 
report on. the hills, 327, 341 ; and the 
Kotagiri ghat road, 336. 
Joachim, Felix, 361. 
Johnson, Mrs., 3/0. 
Johnston, Mr. V7.0., 335 
Johnstone, Mr. Sullivan's gardener, 111, 



Joint Magistrates, 132. 

Jones, Assistant Surgeon, 109. 

Jungle-eat, 35. 

Jangle-fowl, 34, 37, 205. 

Jungle-sheep, 32, 205. 

Justice, administration of, 292-297. 



Kadambas, 91. 

Kaduhola land, 165, 166. 

Kagguchi, 113. 

Kaiti, 3S1. 

Kalhatti village, falls near, 7, 41 j visit of 
Mi-. Keys to, 107; road through, 318, 
230, 237 ; cultivation near it of barley, 
167 ; potatoes, 108 ; coffee, 171 ; apples, 
193 j figs and oranges, 199; and 
ch.eritnoyor. 200 ; Governmant garden 
at, 206 j camp of the Sappers and 
Miners a*", 231 ,- travellers' bungalow at, 
231; experimental brewery at, S8Sj 
police station, in, 296 ; described, 349. 

Kall&r, rival', S, S29, 24C ( village, 207, 229, 
236-239 passim, 298. 

Kanxaraya , S45. 

Katmh&i, 154. 

"Kandal village, girls' soliool at, 126 ; 
police station in, 296 ; proposal to move 
the main bazaar to, 303, 30 i 3 drainage 
of, 307 ; suburb of, 811, 357. 

Kaniyambadi graxjai storehouse, 391. 

KanaSmnukka hamlet, 325. 



386 ■ 



Kaolin, 12. 

Karadiftudda hill, 351. 

Karaimadai, 134, 340. 

Karam&tti tree, 219. 

Karibetta Kaya, 316. 

Karkfir ghat, 11 3, 233, 235. 

Kasubas or Kasuvas, 152, "218, 

KAtSri Btream and fail*, 8, SSS, 818, 318, 

332 ; village, 108. 193, 237, 25:3, 380. 
K&ttakadn hill, 5. 
Ka/val system, 294. 
K&vilorai hamlet, 3-49. 
Kaye, Mr. Thomwi, 349. 
Kelso, Major William, 110, 
Kelukutti'Valunnavar, 36P. 
Kengarai, 103,330, 
SonneSt, Major-Gtuteral Braftklsy , 32] , 

K&ala Yarma Eaju 102, 103, 104, 105. 

Kesinija,, Canarese grammarian, 129. 

KSti, stream, 330 ; village, breeding o£ 
English cattle and sheep at, 38, 20; 
road through, 113; form at, 117, 202 j 
Lutheran liiswrn at, 127 i tea planted 
in, 178 } railway station at, 240 ; rain- 
fall in, 243; Hfhool at, 258; described, 
331. 

Keys, Mr. "William, 107, 350. 

Khamdams, 280. 

Kffeandah, 200, 242, 243, 244. 

Kilur, 112, 226. 

EinderBley, Mr. N. W., 108. 

King, Dr. W., 15. 

Kinnakorai, 04, 270. 

Kintvaeus, 94, 98, 334. 

Knox, Mr. Hubert, 42. 

KtSdanad, Bada&ras not plentiful near, 
129 ; farm proposed at, 304 j tea fac- 
tory in, 223 ; road to, 237 j rainfall in, 
242, £43 ; described 333. 

Kodapamand reservoir, 310. 

Kdd&va,nmai, 118,113. 

K6\&\ S68. 

Kolagana, 225. 

Kolaxi hill, fi. 

EoKbetta 

Kollagal hills, 128 note. 

KolHmalai, in Mysore, 136 j in Ooonooi- 
taluk, SIC. 

Konakarsi, 101,333,370. 

Kouakatti, Mil. 3H4. 

Korali, 129, 104. H'.5, 16tJ. 

Kota Hall, 33G. 

H#tap[irt gfcrft, 224, 227, 216. 

Kdl&giri Reefs Company, 338. 

KiStagiri town, Cithada kalia runs from 
near, 8 , gold mines and iron ore near, 
12 j cromlech in, 99, 101; bridle path 
from, 109, 22(> ; early settlements, in, 
110; visited by Pit Thomas Mtmro. 
113 i lioness in 182? to, 115} its decline 
after opening of Coonoor gb.it, 118 ; 
bench court at, 122, 292 i ohapel and 
priest at, 126} Baaet Mission, in, 127, 



j 332 ; eoilee bug- in the estates near, 
j 174} ten pivoted at, 170 j rubber plant- 
: sd near, 191 ; cultivation in it of applet, 

133 j peaches and apricots, 198 ; • 
I plums, 19G ; and figs, 199 , market at, 
| 224; first visited by Europeans, 22(i ; 
i oliattram at, 230 ; road to, ^27, 237 ; 
\ rainfall in, 242, 213, 21(5; break "of 
| journey recommended at, 252, plague 
■ in, 253 j hospital at, 254', school at, 
j 25.H ; police station in, 2nfi j hamlet of, 

32-5 ; de-scribed, 334. 
| Kotargher ry, 334. 

, Kd!;as, gvt iron from the low country, 13 ; 
\ appropriate skins of diseased cattle, 28 ; 
I Tdda vessels ma-ie by, 97 J growth of, 
I 124 ; proportion of females among, 124 ; 
i language of, 124 ; mentioned in T6da 
i legends, 129 ; musio of, 132, 133, 134, 
j 3 54, 325 j tneir part in Badaga funerals, 
[ 133 j described, 135-13S; their rela- 
tions with the -other hill- tribes, 157; 
agriculture of, 1G5 ; industries of ( 228 j 
schools for, 265 j poppy heads sold to, 
21)0; village in the Mevknnad^, 81ft, 
their settlement at Kofcagiri, 334 5 
Sangasvami Bettue established by, 340. 
Kdteya Nayaka, 92, 
Kotaote R&jas, 102, 
Kotfcayam Rajas, 102, 103. 
Kotwal, 295. 
Krishna Dava, 93. 
Krishna Itaya STayaka, 93. 
Krdi-maud, river, 9, 360; village, 43, 354 
Kudikadu hill, 6, 346. 
Kuduraihalla, 345. 
KukaL 92, 118. 
Kukulla fort, 02. 
Kulakambai, hill, 5 j stream, B ; falls, 101 } 

hamlet, 237, S3!?. 
KuMmdi hill, 5„ 
iEullanthorai, 334. 
Kumerf system, 169. 
Knndab ghat, 117, 232, 
Kundah river, described, 8; fish in, 39, 
43 ; ravine of, 105 ; tribefcary of, 347 ; 
Mclvor's band aeroas, 352 j bridge over, 
353. 
Kiradahnad, 3. 

Knndahs, deeorilied, G , rainfall on, 12, 
244; elephants and sambhar on, 29 5 
bison shot on, 32 ; ibex and wild dog* 
on, 33 ; exotic iish introdraeed in, 41 j 
eairns and barrows scarcest cm, 9S ,• 
Badagas not plentiful neari 129 ; migra- 
tion of T<5da hun'aloes to, 142 5 flgm?e« 
in Tdtla mythology* 148, 143, 148 j T^da 
gi-asing-groimd, 149 s not suited for 
coffee cultivation, 172 5 grass land o*i t 
209 ; plough and hoe leases in, 209 } 
reserved forests on, 212 j road up the. 
117, 233 s proposad exploitation of, 33&$ 
snow on, 245; settlement of land tm, 
269 s flcenery of, 847 5 excursion, to th» 
top of, 3*7. 



387 



.Kurubas or KuramaB, 153. 

Kurnmba language, 154. 

Kurumhas, gold working* of, 13 , catch 
sambhai*, 30 ; their name for cromlechs, 
90; bLohos pufc in cromlechs by, 1UL ; 
massacre of, 120, 293 j growth of , 124, 
^proportion of females among, 321 ; 
language of, 124; mentioned m T6*da 
legends, 120 , supposed to be sorcerers, 
l^o, alleged to have been made by 
Karuataraya, 130 , Tddas afraid of tb'e 
necromancy of, 143; Toda funeral poles 
procured from, 151; roseinblant'e of 
Jrulas to, 152; their part iji Iruht 
funerals', 153 , described, 153-0' , their 
relations with the other bill tribes, 157; 
1 heir holn sought in teak planting, 21 J> ; 
collect minor forest produce, 219 ; cm- 
ployed in Mudumaku forests, 220 ; 
toddy-drawing by, 287 , emae union j*, 
293, hamlet near BarHyar of, 31 (J ; 
migration of liadagas on account of, 
316; sow the first seed, 325, 331) j iheir 
paw^n Badaga gaerinues, 331 , and m 
MSlur fire-walking ceremony, 33!) , 
at iend Eangasvami festivals, 310; 
daooity committed by, 375. 

Km-ambranadEaia, 102, 103, Sfi7, 3flf>. 

Kussum, 375 note. 

"Kwoten, 1-lS. 



Lab-Lais, 124. 

Ladder Hill, 233. 

Lady Canning's seac, %>8, 310 

Lagm-slrm-mias, 218, 21ft. 

Lakes, 11; lake atOotacanmnd, height of, 
5 , enotio hah in. 40,41,42; begun in 
1824, 113, floods in, 246; reclamation 
or, 303, account of, 357, 362, lake at 
Wellington, 343 ; St. Lawrence Lake, 
353. 

Lamb's Bock, 319. 

Lamb-ton's Peak range, 5, 335, 3-18. 

Land cess, 2db. 

Land measures, 224. 

Land Uevcnue administration, 207, 285. 

Landslips, 33, 2-10,340, 

Langsat, 207. 

Languages spoken, 124, 

Laiigur, 34. 

Lapictjuo, M. Loniy, 155. 

LwsoelloB, Mr., 300, 324., 338. 

Lafierite, 1 2, 

Law", Col., ±29. 

Lawrence, Sir Henry, £01. 

La^vraneo Asylum, Amrac Mahal ear.tle at, 
23 ; Knglish. sheep at, 39 ; model farm 
at, 204; hospital &t, 25&-> described, 
281-8 , formerly located in Sfconphouae, 
1*58. 

Lawrence Asylmu Press, 2G2, 

Law's fall, 2-29, 318. 

L&wson, Mt. A., 1SG, £03. 



Leather work, 222. 

Zecaidum, 174, 175, 20O. 

Leemintf, Mr. H. W., 173. 

LeProy, Mr. Maxwell, 175, 200. 

Lcliar.ly, Lieutenant., 110, 117, 22S, 232. 

Lemon's, 3^9, 200 

Leopard -cat, 35. 

Leopards, SI, 33. 

Loschenault do la, Tour, M., 3 0f>. 

Libraries, 320, 361. 

Lilly, Mr. W. S,, 32i. 

Limes, S, 131, 190, 200. 

Liinti'itone, 12. 

Lineal me-iHures, 225. 

Linga Raja Araaa, 371. 

Lingayatw, 128, 130, 

Liquor shops, 2SH. 

Liteln, 28, 207. 

Li ver diseases, 251, 252. 

Llangollen Brewery, 290. 

JjocaT Belt- Government, 298-311. 

Lock's Collet' ■ ita culture and commwee, 
173 note, 

Long vallev, 311. 

LomtatR, 208, 

Ztnunthucc'ov.s pat as< heal jilanfc*, 21S. 

Lovedalo, lake, 11, 41 ; stream, 12 , 
village, 210, 202, 290. 

Lower secondary schools, 257, 2(30, 

Long diseases, 251. 

Lushington, Mr. O. M., 271. 

Lushington, Mr. H. 11., gold workings in 
the time of, 14 j sanitarium at Ootaoa. 
mund &Btabhshod by, 1 14, 115; residences 
of, 118 ; on horticultural and agri- 
tfiilfcural improvements, 202 ; Coonoor 
ghar, initiated by, 228; Sispara ghat 
suggested by, 232 ; G-ddaldr ghat used 
by, 233 ; on the proprietary rights of 
the Todas, 270 % bungalows at Dimkafcti 
purchased by, 326; laid the foundation 
stone of St. Stephen's at Ootacamtind, 
35&. 

Lutheran Mission, 125, 127. 

Lytton, Lord, 370. 

ffl 

MaoCartie, Mr. 0. "E; 250, 284. 

Mclyor, Mr. "W. Gr., 41, 183-186,205-807, 

214; Mrs., 869. 
lid tot's Band, 9,347, 352. 
Maekeazie, Colonel Oolin, 100; Mr. Colin, 

301 nolo, 191. 
Macleod, Colonel, 104; Major, 104, 207, 

268; Captain Frederick, 337. 
MaoMahon, Mr., 107. 
Maopherson, Lieutenant Bvans, 109, 113, 

116, 2«7, 335. 
Madhava TJann&yaka, 02, 
Madras Kailway, 240. 
Mads, 130. 
Magic, 154, 160, 293. 
Magnolia flower, 318. 
MahaTaluiiiln, 358. 



50 



388 



Mahogany, S8, 2"7. 

Mahseer, 39, 42. 

Kaisse, 151. 

Malaiko'ta, attributed to (JmiiiaUtfr Rajas, 
Q&; garrisoned by Tipu, 102; Udaiya 
Raya removed to, 83-1; described. 350 ; 
Neilia'am family settled nt, 37o ; 
attacked by Tipu, 371 

Malappuram, 342. 

Malarayens,36e. 

Malaria, 31,228. 

Malayalam, 12 k 

Mamnlli, 376, 

Mammalia, 28-31, v5-7'5. 

Manankofctai, 367. 

Manantoddy, 171. 

Manfii'ghftt, 105, S2ii. 

Mauavalai ceremony, 131, 15,";, 370. 

Mandw3an GhetAis, 1 5S 

Mandavafearai, 3fW. 

Af<»uk, 131*. 

Manerako'ttai, 3i'>7. 

Mangoes, *\ 

Maugoetoen, SS, 207. 

jUcmiHaftffrft'iw, 205. 

MaoiafcHubM, 105, 108, 1 1 2, 22(1. 227, 

Sthun, Sir., I,7S. 

Manure, 130, 105, 170, 173, 2Sft. 

ai«-ppilks, impaled alive by Kerala Vanna, 
103 j origin of, 124: found in Wynaad, 
125 5 trade of, 224, 308 j coffee -Mealing 
by, 294. 

Markets, 2S4, 300, 305. 

Markb&ni, Sir Clements, iy3, 1S4, 200, 20{>. 

Marlimand, reservoir, 'J 3, US, SoS j 
plantation, 215 ; brewery, 280. 

Marriage customs, oi iiaclagas, 331 ; Kota-s, 
130 j Tddas, 1C0 ; Irakis, 153 j 
Knrambas, 155, 156 ; M&udadau Oliofctis, 
15S i Wynaadan Chetiis, 1 00 , and 
Paniyans, 1G1. 

Tfyxda*tSt.' t 4&. 

Marshall, Col. W". 13., 131J note. 

Marfcelli, Mr., 30, 349. 

Marten, Indian, 34-, 

Utotfla, 139. 

Martin, Mr., 340, 

M&rtip-p&am&ds, bill, 7 , ran go, 13. 

Maaanahalli, 93, 351. 
„ Slasinigudi, horse breeding at, 29; ele- 
phants near, SO ; spotted oVer and bison 
near, 32 j grant of, 1)3, fort near, 94; 
hero stones ami saii stones near, 90 j 
threatened bj Kerala Yarana's men, 
104; Irulas near, 3 52; sandalwood a|., 
218; timber front Mudumalai forest 
sent to, 220; road through, 330,387) 
travellers' bungalow ot, 231 ; chatti'am 
at, 286 ; famine near, 245 ; ryotwari 
system prevails in, 274; revision of 
assessments in, 278 ; police station in, 
296; described, 351, 

Meadows Taylor's Tiypoo Sultcum, 330. 

Means of oomamnieabi?>n, 226-2 11 . 

Measures, weights find, 224, 



j Medical garden, 20ii. 

j Mudical Institutions, 2i>i-2a<"->. 

■ Medlai'B, 105 

\ Melanoxylon, 215, Silt. 

j Mdhosma tret?) 141, 14i. 

1 Miillnmd^b, 1R4. 352. 353. 

| Mfllfir 1011,2:17,3^5, 33d. 

1 MeVfcuim<3, 3. 

I Metcwulog'y, -'51. 

1 AlathexliHtR, 125. 

j MilttucliAW, 125, 18ti. 240, 258. 

! MplitupftUijani. Toda cloths wovpii near, 

i 110, market for liuLis at, 152; roads 

2£1 , plague carriud from, ^53. 

! Sli-t/, Jftev.V., on Bud.jgaH, 130,133,135. 

JPSj Ktftiis, 135, lSiJj Tuilas, 189 note; 

! Kuril in bn magic. !•)*■; use of opium, 

i 291 1 house of, 337, nil Mukarti 

Peak, 354. 
i Melz little 337. 
I Mica, 33. 

Military Orphan Asylums, 2fi2, 2t53. 
Milk room, sanctity of, 129, 131. ** 
Milman, R,i K ht Rev, Robert, 360, 
Mmchin, Mr. J. W., 102. 
Minerals, 12, 13. 

Minor 1'oroat produce, 218, 213, 221. 
Mission Hill, Coonoor, 30O. 
]\!ithorai and Efitfirj Gold Mining Co., 32*. 
Molemava, 354, 
Monetary terms, 225. 
Monkey, 34, I OP, 19], 
Moplahs. jS<?fl Miippillas. 
Murant, Colonel, constructed the present 
Kotagiri ghat, 2S8 , took an interest in 
the ifilgiri Railway soli erne, 238; 
school house oonstructod by, 259 , 
drainage and water-supply schemes 
preparad by. 308, SOS j designed the 
churches at Ooonoor, 322 ; Wellington, 
341 j and G-ddaldr, 36H. 
Morgan, General, 28, 29, 193, 196, 211, 

213 j Mr. Rhodes, S3, 42, 
Morningtoti, Lord, 104. 
Mottas, 151, 154. 
Mount Aba, 250, 301. 

Moy&r river, boundary of the district, 2 ; 
tributaries of, 7, 349, described, 9; 
falls into the Bliavani, 02, 226 j fcist- 
i vaen>* in the valley of, 08; forests in the 
I valley of, 208, 218; 3errel of the bed of, 
i 231 ; bridge over, 231 ,■ proposal to 
supplement the supply from Ootaea- 
imind lako, 3(!2, 
Mrig'^ndraKaja Araeu, 372. 
Mnddu Gavuri, 334. 
Muddumars, 152. 
Mndukadu stream, 7. 
Mnduraalai, forest, formerly eontai tied 
teak and blackwood, U ; bifion found m, , 
32; KururabsB near, 153; bronghfc 
under control, 211 ; described, 219 ; 
teak from, 230; leased from Nilambur 
Ti'mmidpad, 36SJ; village, SfsK- 



asy 



Mtikarti, peak, 6, 9, ill, 318, 854; river, 
41. 
w Mukkumalai, 319. 
Mulberries, 398,20(3. 

Mule-breeding, 29. 

Hwis leaf, 142. 
" Ihumnad, 280, 370. 371. 

Munsroose, 36. 

Muni Hiiebnmis, 290. 
Municipalities, 254, 990-311. 

Mnnro, Sir Thomas, 133, 312, £50, 253. 

Muntiac, 32. 

Harder, 293. 

-Murray, Captain W.. 117, 228, 232, 340, 
383. 

Murray- Ay nslev, Colonel Herbeit, S3,*). 

Murraypeb, 232, 8fi3. 

Murree Brewery Co., 20O. 

Maeahuans, 324, 22-1, 257. 

Museums, 95) 8(31. 

Music, 135. See also Kutan. 

Mnttil, 3(39. 

Muttinad, 316. 

Myralfco&ams. 218, 

Mysore Ditch, 9, 221. 

Mysore State, cattle and bhucp from, 28, 
MO , KilgiriG under the kings of, 03, 
Kolas name from, 13(3 • Kimirnbas 
came from, 155 ; grain imported from, 
1(55, 223 ; coffeu produced in, 170 j 
cattlo sent for grazing from, 218; 
terminaha tomen&Qsa, unsaleable in, 210; 
blaekwoocl sent for sale to, 221; grain 
imported from, 223 ; roads to, 233 ; 
railway to, 240; plague imported, from, 
253; Yedcla'sin, 3(37; Kellialam family 
immigrated from, 370, 371 ; labour and 
grain for Oiiclitorbiiy Valley obtained 
from, 375. 

Mysore town, 230. 

N 

Xailgniii, ti, 235, 23(3, 237, 350. 

Karluvafctam, tiyers shot, at, 30 ■ trout 
ca tight near, 42 , Chinese &otilement in, 
ISi; cinchona plantations in, 184, 
185, 372 i rpiinino factory at, 18(3, lal , 
•road from, 233, 234, 235, 237; travel- 
lers' bungalow at, 234 ; cliattram at, 
2S6 j rainfall in, 212, 243, 24j<; plague 
m, 253; oiiieo of Head Assistant Col- . 
lecinr at, 283; police station in, S00 ; 
coffee plants from, 338 ; dfesorilied, 356 ; 
bridle-path from, 377- 

Xambalakod, [martz-orrudiiiig in, 15 ; 
Valnmiav:ii',s nl', 15S, 3(37 ; templo at, 
- 138, 150, 307; ianmam prrperly of : 
^itambdr Tinmmlpad, 230; described, 
365) ,'■ attacked by Turn's troops, 371 . 

rTandipyram, 340. , 

Kattjanad, valley, si, 12; village, 1U, 112. I 
14-3, 23(5, 271,35(3. 

Kanjangod, 143, 221, 2^1. 

Uapier. Lord, 33, 204, 303 Ludy, 41, 



j Natesa Sastri, Pandit S, M., 130, 133. 
, ETazareth Convent, 120, 2(34'. 
i Nectarines. 105,206, 324. 
| Sfedugnla, 316, 325, 334. 

Needle Hock. 7. 
■ Nellakottai, 33, 237, 29(3, 369. 
; Nellialam, gold-washing near, 19 j Arasu 
I of, 149. 280, 334; Xarumba-S near, 153, 
j 155; Itfalaiko'ta chief fled to, 350; 
j described, 370. 
, Nelliturai, Slfi. 
j Iffery, Mr., 310. 
; Nefchopi, 334. 
I Newspapers, 2(35, 
' Muihulson, Mr. A. G., 191. 

Nicolson, Lt. Wooclloy, 11 

Hilaaib&r, forests, 190, 367; Timnialpad, 
gold working of , 14; jaaiaan property 
of, 219, 280,282, 367, 369; hie claims 
to the Quchterloiiy valley. 37". 

A*i2«Mn.s, 280, 

Mlgiri Brewery, 290. 

Nttgiri Peak, 6, 373. 

Nilgiri Railway, 337-241, 343. 

Kilgiri Volunteer Rifles, 264, 207. 

Siramidi, 92. 

rJifkambai, 127. 

Xirtmgundamid, 92, 

Noma, Mr,, 323. 

ISTutmeg, 28, 2U6, 207. 

Kuts, 200. 



Oak troy, 27, 35S. 

Oftkea, Mr. George, 107, L6S, 192, 197- 
20] passim. 

Oats, 1(38, 203. 

Observatories, 25j . 

Occupations, 222. 

Oohroous clays, 12. 

Oofcaeaimmd taluk, 343-304. 

Oocacaniuml town, lake in, 11; uiinwaU 
in, 12 ; exotic trees in and about, 26; its 
Hunt, 35 ; no wnonions snakes in, 44 ; 
early visits to, 111, 118) bouses in 182? 
in, 115 ; invalid hospital at, 310, 117; 
early sketches and plans of, 110 ; mili- 
tnrv commandant of, 320 : Principal 
Sadi- Amin'e Court at, 121; Bench Courts 
in, 122, 292; growth of, 123; Parsi 
burial place in. 124 ; B.oni:m Catholics 
in, 125, 120; chaplain at, 125 : ■work of 
the C.H.B. in, 126-137 ; Non-confomists 
in, 128; fruit grown in, 193, 197, 108, 
200 ; Government Gardens in, 20'J ; 
grass land near, 209 j felling oi the 
sbdlas near, 210 ; protection of woods in 
211 ; tree planting ab, 210, 214; fuel 
depot at, 217 ; limber from Muclmnalai 
forest sent to, 220 ; industries! in, 222 ; 
market at, 224; roads to, 227,232,234, 
235, 2SB, 352 ; railway to, 237, 240 ; 
rainfall in, 242, 243, »44, 249, 250; 
iloocis in. 245 ; temperature of, 248, 24$,, 



890 



250 ; wind direction mid velocity in, 
249 ; observatories in, 25] ; preparation 
necessary for a visit to, 252 ; plague in, 
253; vaccination compulsory in, 253; 
hospital in, 255 5 schools in, 253, 260, 
2R4; newspapers published in, 265 5 
compensation paid to the To'cfas of, 271 ; 
properties hold under old grants in. 
272 ; settlement of, 272 ; rules for the 
acquisition of land jn, 27± ; oftice of 
Head Assistant Collector in, 2S3; salt 
sold af, 28fij breweries in, 290 j sub- 
registrar at, 292 ; deputy Lahsildar at, 
202 ; sub-judge at, 292; military police 
formerly stationed in, 296 ; protection 
of forests iic&r, 295 ; police Btation in, 
29S ; snb-iail at, 297 ; municipality, 
302-31 1 ; proposal to station a regiment 
at, 3*1 ; name ' Victoria ' suggested for, 
312; fish transferred from Billikal to, 
340; down bed, 357-03. 

Opium, IDS, 290. 

Orange valloy. 7, 0.1 ,200. 

Oranges, 7, S s 1 90, 20(3, 324 . 

Orchis, 34S, 

Orphanages, 120,127. 

Orton, Assistant Bttrsroon, 111, 320. 

O'Hbaiighncaar, Mp.,"806. 

Ofton, 84, 

Ouchterlony, Colonel Edward, 370; Mr. 
Gordon Alexander, 376 ; Mr. James, 37-1, 
374, 370 ; Mr. James William, 376 ; Colo- 
nel John, his survey report , on coffer 
planting, 171 ; farms, 203, Sundapatti 
pass, 227; and rates of assessment, 208 
note ; rules for grant of land introdaced 
after, 272; on establishment of a brew- 
ery, 289; Arnvanlcad, 312 »';tv j 
Ooonoor, 323; Dimhattl, 327; Ilulikal 
Drug, 320, 330 1 and Kof agiri, 335 ; qilo 
of Wellington barracks suggested, by, 
341 ; tomb of, 300, 

Onobterlony's ohattraui, 236. 

Orach tsrlony Valley, included in the dis- 
trict, 2 ; scenery of, 6 ; Pandi river rises 
in, 10; tigers canght near, 30 ; elephauts 
formerly common in, 30 ; carp caught 
in, 42 ; transferred to the district from 
Malabar, 122; opened tip with coffee, 
171 j itta. factory in, 223 j trade of, 224 ; 
.ianmam property of Uilambar T'rumul- 
pad, 2S0 ; survey aufl fcetllomoiifc of, 283 ; 
smuggling of liquor iiito, 288; rato of 
land-cess in, 298'; planting in, 3(59; 
described, 372-377. 

Oadb, annexation of. 336. 



IVchniarhi, 250- 

Pftikara river, boundary of the Wynaad, 
2, 37S j described, ; fieh in, 40-43 
passim ; farm west of, 204 ; bridge over. 
235, 



Paikara village, griias new, 142; cinchona 
plantations in, 184 ; chattram at, 230 , 
load through, 237 ; rainfall in, 242, 243 ; 
dispensary at, 254; school at, 265; 
police station in, 206. 

Pak asm-alto* ttai, 320. 

Palassi, 102, 103. «r 

Pallavas, 153. 
Falmyia arrack, 287 

Poiiohayate, 132, 130, ISO, 152, 155, 15!*. 

Pimitiihir, scenery round, 6 5 gold workings 
ni'itr, 1 7, 19 ; imbber plantation in, 191 ; 
rhea libre planted near, 102; Head 
Assistant Collector's hcad-cpinrteiR at, 
283; described, 377. 

Pandi livor, 10, 373, 375, 377. 

l J amcnm miliars, 129, 104. 

Paniyans, 15, 30-31, 100, 160, 203. 

Para rubber, 190, 370. 

■hiriiiyana, 128. 

Paicnt tongue, 124. 

Parsis, 124. 

Parson's valiev stream, ft, J3. 

Pasteur Institute, 254, 320. 

Pavhk Btream,3i0, 

Pavean, Father, 125. 

Peaches, 105. 206, 324. 

Peafowl, 34,37. 

Pears, 103, 104, 206,324 

Peat, 12. 

People of the district. 123-102. 

Poppeimint pUnt, 20G. 

Pci-angiinad, 3. 

l'erroi,tel,M., 178. 

Peramimon, 100'. 

Peyton, Sir Thomas, 3b. 

Phillips, Mr. P. F., 332. 

Phippy, Mr., 320, 

Pha'uis. gold mine, 18; company, 377. 

Phvsioa! description, 1-89 

PicWbetta, 6. 

Fieii-on, S'atuoc.T. P-., 12f 

Pigeons, 37. 

Pigs, Englwli, 20 j wild, 32, 152, 1(10, 101, 
281. 

Pines, 27,215, 217, 

Pippin apple, 103. 

Pirmand, 32, 232. * 

Plague, 2/53. 

Plantains, 151,200. 

Plantations, Government, 215. 

Planters Lab-oar Act, 174. 

Plough tax, 270. 

Plums, 106,200,324. 

Podnnur-Pindigul Hallway, 241.' 

Police, 354, 294. 

Political history, 00-122. 

Polyandry, 1-10. 

Pomegranates, 8. 

Ponies, 29. 

Ponnaui, 371 . 

Pope, Dr. G. XL, 258. 

Poppy plant, 202, 291. 
Population of the district, 1 23. 

Porcupine, 36, ]fiS, 193. 



391 



Potatoes, area under, 164; cultivation of 
165, 167; grown in K^fci farm, 203; 
export, of, 228 ; grown at Malaikofa, 350. 
lottery, 96, 222. 
Pottinger, Sir Henry. 3-*2. 
Pregnancy ceremonies, 136, 1 14—15. 
faesltytcrian s, 125. 
Preston, Captain, 360. 
Pi'ioc, Sir Frederick, on the Gotacamund 
Hunt, 35; early visits to the Nilgiris, 
J 07, 108, 109; and the pmgiess of 
Ootacaimracl, 120 ; on Catholic chapels, 
125 note; the cultivation of English 
fruit tices, 103, 196, 108, 200; the 
history of the Government, Gardens, 
204, the introduction of Australian 
trees, 213 , observatories, 251 note j 8t 
Bartholomew's hospital, 255, 25G; opium, 
290; OoUcamund, 302,305, 341,358; 
Mr. Sullivan's bungalow at Dimhatti, 
326; and Keti, 331. 
Pi imitiv? 3V?T>es an'l momimrntu of tin: 

ffi^wby Mr. J. W. Brooks, 284. 
Principal §adr Airiiu, 121, 122, 296. 
Printing presses, 223. 
IVouilook, Mr., 197. 
Ptrrocarpan Mttrawpium, 21 S. 
Public Health, 247-25(5. 
Pimis-a, 91. 
Pnntkut Yalley, 357, 
Parti stream, 0. 
Pnttiah. 372. 
Pychy escheats, 104. 
V'yuhj rebel, 103,280,371. 



Quail, 37. I 

Quart a veins, 5.2. I 

ymnoes, 195, ' 

Quinine, 182, 180-190, 223. i 

B J 

It oco course, nt Pandaldr, 19, 377; Wei- ■ 

ling-ton, 343 ; and Ootacanvnnd, 362, i 

3S3. 

Baehainalla, 91. I 

Bae r Mr„29, 179. | 

Battf, 151, 364-160 pemm. ! 

Railways, 237-241, I 

EaisifaH, 242-245. i 

Itaja WodevDr, 93. I 
WAllib, hill', 5, Tillage, 113,113, plants- ] 

tion, 2X6. * j 

Hnnwuy, lady Susan, 336. j 

Eaugasvami pnalc, position of, 5 j another j 

name of, 02; temple on, 134. 152; 

dcSeribed, 340. ; 

RangasTasii Pillar, 341. j 
Eangavya Gavnudan and Co., Messrs., i 

287/390. j 

Hashora, 349. I 

Raspberries, 108, 197, 206. I 
•Rats, 85. 



Ravntans, 121. 
Bead, Colonel, 170. 
Exemption of amWent, 273. 
Redmond, Mr., 105. 
Roes, Mr. J. D., 285. 
ReeB' Corner, 285. 
registration, 292 

Religion, 124 ; of the Badagap, 1 34 • 
Kotos, 137; 16da,K, 1 10-144; Irolaa, 
152 ; Kurumbasj I,* 5; Mandadan 
Chettia, 1.59; W\oaad,m Cliettis, 160; 
and Paniya-ns, 162. 
Reptiles, 44, 84-87. 
Re-seived fotests, 212. 
Revenue settlements, 267-283, 
Rhea fibre, 102. 

Rhododendron trees, 4, 24, 208, 34S. 
Rhubarb plant, 168, 20U. 
Rice, 164, 1 68, 169. 
Rio?, Mr. Lewis, 01. 
Bicbarcls, Lieutenant-Colonel, 343. 
Rieharclaon's hue, 373, 
Riggenbach, M., 23a. 
Emdetpest, 32, 
Rivers, 7-lU 

Rivers, Mr. W. H. E„ 105, 120, 137. 
Roads, 109-UOaj«(ssfm. 226-237, 245-246, 

208. 
Robbery, 293. 
Roberts, ttarl, 207. 

Robertson, Mr. W. R„ lijfi note, 204 ; 
Major W. M., 359 ; Sir William, 336, 
371, 
Roman Catholics; 125, 258, 260. 
Rookery ghat, 331. 
Roso and Grown Brewery, 200, 
Eoics, 108,317. 
Royle, Dr, Forbes, 183. 
Rubber, 100-192, 207, 376. 
Eubus plants, 142, 198. 
Kadrayya, 370. 

Rumbold, Sir 'lliomas, 361 , Sir William, 
exotic Hah introduced by, 39 ; erected 
the building occupied by the club at 
Ooiaoamand, 118, 3tH : his farm and 
bungalow at Billital, 348, 340 ; tomb of 
the wife of, 350. 



Sadasiva Raja Uis, 370, 371. 

Bag'tj palms, 286. 

SaMrartpivr, 104, 

Saiyad Ifddan, 330, 350. 

Saiyadabad, 330. 

Salt, 286. 

Saltpetre, 173,286, 

E&iuai, 129, 151, 164-160 passim. 

Sambhar, found all over the district, 31; 

the record head, 32 • protection of, 34; 

eatea by tUe Todae, 144; slain during 

lire-walking - ceremonies, 330, 
Sandalwood, 2518. 
Sandy Nullah, 7,41, 2 36. 
Sappers' Valley, 312. 



392 



■ f 316. 
ati ehrises, 310. 
Satyamaugalam f 2-11. 
Sawyer, Kev. William, 3(50. 
Seape-calf, 133. 
Schools, 125-127, 258-2G5. 
Sedans, 317. 

Sembanactato, 94, 230, 233, 331. 
Seringapatanoi, 102, HO, 36C. 
Seruln, 112, 227. 
Sctario, glauca, 129, 104. 
Settlement* of land revenue, 2U7-2S3. 
Sewage farm, 307. 
Shaddocks, 200. 
'Shandy day' in Ootaeamuml, 1 14, 228. 

287, 305. 
ShariEabad, 330. 
Shoep, 29. 
Shells, 44, 88-89. 

Shifting system. Set? Bhurty system. 
Shola Hayakas, 153, 166. 
Sholahola land, 165. 
ShrfWtal, 232, 233. 
Shfilas, 5, 22, 23, 203. 
Sbolur, 100, 111, 112, 1VJ. 
Shortt, Dr., bia account of tbo Badagas, 

130; Katun, 135 note ; Irtdas, 153 note 3 

and Kummbas, 154 note; Cherf mover 

introduced bv, 20O; on Mukarti Peak., 

354, 
Shrines, 90. 
Stsuliknlam, 367. 
Shfilimalai, 15. 
Sibbandis, 206. 
Sfgdr ghat, 221, 230. 810 j rivor, 7, S8, 39, 

40, 231, 3J9; village, 32, S3, 115, 233, 

230, 362. 
Silting process of making embankments, 

Sim,"'kr. H, A-, 2S5 j Mr, J. P., 206, 250, 
319. 

Sim's Park, Coonoor, 206, 315*. 

Sfpatti bridge, 235. 

Sirumugai, bridle path from, 10!', 227 , 
ghat road -from, IIS, 827, 335 ; travel- 
lers 1 brnigalotv ai, 227 ; fort near. 33-1. 

Siruvani river, 30, 

Sispara-, Pioneer camp at, 117 ; ghat road 
from, 117, 232, 347; figures in Toda 
mythology, 14S; travellers* bungalow 
at, 233 s described, 363, 

Skull Reef, 15. 

Small eauae powers, 122. 

StnalbpG*, 253, 301. 

Smith, Major G. de H., SOI. 

Smyth, Mr, Brough, 15, 350, 367 note. 

Snakes, 44. 

Snake-stone, 364. 

Saipe, 37, 862. 

Snow, 345. 

Snowdon, bill, 3, 357 ; ponds, 42, 43, 308, 
309; bungalow, 393, 1&7, 258: planta- 
tion, 215. 

Soils, 165, 169. 

Sorcery, 143. 



Soutsr, Sir Frank, 3G0. 
South Downs, 118, 120, 202, 2D0. 
Spencer, Bishop, 330. 
Spur-fowl, 37. 
Squirrels, 35. 

SU Bartholomew's Hospital, Oolacanmnci, 
255, 284, 308. * 

St. Catherine's falls, S, 101. 3S8. 
St. Lawrence Lake, 353. 
St. Simon, General the Marquis els, 331. 
St. Stephen's church, Oofeaoauannd, height 
of, 5 : tombstone iti, 33; foundation of , 
110 3 cemetery at, 284, 32,7, 332 ; bell 
sent to Wellington chnrch from, 344 ; 
described, 359. 
Staircase bill, 5. 
Stamps, 281, 
Standen, Mr. W. M., 180. 
StanoB, Mr. T., 261, 337. 
Staveley, General William, 300. 
Stokes-Roberts, Major E. R. B., 320. 
Stonehoiise, built by Mr. Sullivan, Kl; 
Sir Thomas Monro stayed at, 113 ; 
rented for sick officers, 114< ^invalid 
quarters removed from, 120 ; garden 
laid out by Mr. Sullivan at, 202 ; board- 
ing school at, 258; [purchased for the 
Lawrence Asylum, 261 ; purchase «f the 
Bite of, 271; Government offices in, 358; 
cemetery near, 350. 
Storms, 228. 245. 
Strawberries, 108, 112, 198, 206. 
Strobilanihex, 2, SJ. 23, 25, 114. 
Stuart, Mr. Caatlostuart, 270 , Sii' H.A.. 

2S5. 
Sub-jail, 290, 207, 
Subordinate judge, 121, JS2, 2H2. 
Subudra, 3t)9. 

Succession among To"das, 150. 
Sullivan, Mr. John, taught llio Kutaat/i 
make iron, 13 , his conm'ction with the 
district, 10S-117 > on the transfer of 
part of the district io Malabar, 117, 121 ; 
tried to stop Toda infanticide, 140; 
agricultural improvements dne to, 100, 
187, 178; garden laid out by, 202, 340; 
improvements in communications made 
by, 327, 233 ; on the tmrrey of 1800-01, 
208; on the proprietary rights of tfee 
Todas, 270 ; purchased the site of Stone- 
house. 271 , suggested redaction of 
assessment, 272; bungalows built bv, 
325, 320. 358 ; lake made bv, 362. 
Sultan's Battery, 100, 333. ' * 

SnndapaUi, 105, 108, 112, 220. 
Survey. 2fi8, 274,279- 
SyfccB, Colonel, 2SJ note. 
SytiionH t 5Iv„30. 



Tadasiirta-raMtti, 3li5, 

Tshfeildar, of the hills, 317, 205 s 

Coonoor, 283, 2!>2, 324, 834. 
Talaiij&ris, 205. 



393 



Tamil Mission of the 0. >1,S, , "UG. 
TsmrasBeri pass, 233. 
Td#dalg6rs, 295. 
Taraxacum plant, 306. 
Tattooing, 130, 140, 152. 
Ta/lor, Mr. T. G.,251. 
Tea, aifta under, 104, 170; land suited for 
cultivation of, lfi9 ; manufacture of, 
B 177-182 , factories, 253 ; export of, 223 ; 
plantations noar Ko"tagiri, 338 ; anil in 
the Oachtsi'lonv vullev, 370. 
Teak, 6, 21fi-221,"330 
Technical classes, SG-i. 
Temperature, 247-353. 
Tenai, 151. 
Teaeriffe hill, 5,318. 
Terakan&rabi, 82. 
Term&naUas, 218. 219, 220. 
Thomas, Mr. E. S-, 200, 210, 21-i, 310, 321, 
336; Mr. H. S,, 42, 3-19 , Mr. James 
117, 227, 336 ; IWbla Mr. J. F„ 821. 
Tlittr^ten, Mr. E., on the Badagas, ISO, 
133 jTg^tas, 133 note ; T6das, 139 note ; 
Iralas, 4Sa«aote s and Km ambas, 154. 
note. 
Tiger flill at Ootacaniund, 37, 308; at 

CQOnoor,319, 322, 
Tigera, 30, 12G, 161, 232. 
TippakacTu, Paikara river near, 9; bunga- 
low at, 115 ; road through, 230. 233, 236, 
2S7; JMoyar bridge at, 231; travellers' 
bungalow at, 231 ; uhafctram at, 230 : 
malaria in, 253 , Greneral Sfcaveiy diod at, 
360. 
Tipu Sultan, gold-working attributed to, 
Si ; collected revenue from, the STilgiris, 
102, 207 ; crushed "by the EnP,lieh, 102 ; 
hia relations with the fvehy rebel, 103 ; 
prisoners kept in Huliksd Drug by, 330 ; 
coated Malaik<5ta, 350; Maainigudi 
devastated in the campaign witli, 351 ; 
church bui.lt of materials from the 
palace of, 359; Ms attempt to obtain 
buried treasure. 370. 
Tiruppattur, 170. ' 

Tiruvenkatasvami Mudalivav, liao Baha- 
dur, 255, 287. 
Tobacco-smuggling, 108, 117, 220, 232, 
Tddapatta lauds, 212, 272. 
Tddanad, S, 90, 104, 372. 
'iMdaa, clusters of huts of, 4; Mtikarfci 
'Peak figures in the mythology of, (3, 354 ; 
hold the Paikava river sacred, 9j buffa- 
loes of; 28 ; subdued by the Hoysalas, 
91 ; accounts by the Oatholio priests of, 
*94, 105 ; cairns ascribed to, 97; orna- 
ments of, 98 j rights of, 120; growth 
of, 42i j proportion, of females among, 
124; language of, 124,181; attempts 
to evangelize, 327; legends of, 129; 
story of creation of, 136 ; deporibed, 138- 
161 ; Kurumbas murdered by, 155; 
their relations with the other lull 
kibes, 157; schools for, 265 ; revenue 
* settlements with, 270-2; their mand at 



i Ooonoor, 324; their former settlement 
| near Wellington, 3,13 j supposed rained 
i capital ai, 356. 
| Todawan parai, 331. 
j Toddy, 280. 
Tolls, 236, 298. 
Tocanalli, 33-k, 
Tottalingi, 351. 
Towns Nuisances Act, 293. 
Trade, 125, 223. 
I Travellers' bungalows, 226, 227, 230, 234, 
230. 
Trevelyan, Sir Charles, 179, 211, 342, 343. 
Triquet, father, 120. 
Trout, 9, 38,39,4.2,3*7, 
Tudor Hall, 193, 197, 213, 309. 
Tudr trco, 141. 
Tiidur, 100, 101,310, 339. 
Tnllooh, Major, 30G. 
TuneVi, 113, 127, 361. 
Turner, Bishop, 8."»». 
Tweeddale, Marquis of, 121,205, 305, S£l. 



Udaiva Baya Kola, 01, 98, 329, 333, 370. 

Udriyako'ta, 333. 

tHnad hill, 5. 

UmmafcMir Rajas, 93, 233, 350, 370. 

Underwood, Captain, 231. 

Upper secondary schools, 260, 364. 



Vaccination, 253. 

Vallancey, Captain, 323. 

Valnnnavara of Naihbalsk6d. 1S8, 367, 309, 

Vanilla, 28. 

royals, 168, 280. 

Vayitri, 233, 230. 

Veddas, 360, 307. 

Vellalans, 128. 

Vengai, 218-221 passim. 

Veukayya, Eai Bahadur V, 100. 

Ven-ioab, 219, 220, 221. 

Vijayanagar kingdom, 83, 

Village establishments, 270, 295. 

Village magistrates, 283. 

Village munsil'a, 292. 

Villages, 129, 275. 

Vine, Colonel, 337. 

Vices, 199, 208. 

Vira "Varma, 102. 

Viraraya fanam, 132. 

Vishmwardhanu, 91, 92. 

Votive offerings, 340. 

Vows, 810. 

Vubatalai Tillage, 312, . 



ZM 



W 

Wages, 1223. 

Waliab, MujoT-GBneml, 323. 

Walaghat, 382, 233, 263. 

Walob, Mr. a. T.,Sfty. 

\tttlhouB6, Mv. M. .1 , 101, 357. 

Walnut, 200. 

VftttidAr Nambudripad, 280. 

Wfcpshai'o, J]>. il.,'12, 282,370; Mi*. H., 
376; Mi-. J.H.,375, 370. i 

Word, Captain H. S., 97, 1 1 2, 230, 320, JJSo. | 

Warden, Mr., 278. | 

WaBto Land. Hulas, 273. ! 

Water-supply schemes, 300, 307-311, 33.", j 

Waterfalls, 7", 8, 9. | 

Waterloo bridge, 312, 3-i'i. ; 

Wattle, 20, 27, 218-217 jiuivwn, 303. 

Wartclell, Dr., 182, ; 

"Weights and Hiea.sure«, 224. ! 

\VellcBluy,Coloni>l Arthur, 104. 

Wellington canloiunont, lake m, 11, , 
escarpment due to mariuo action near, : 
11 ; iron ore found near, IS • regimental f 
pack at, 33 ; curly visitors to the site of, ; 
108; road through, 113; oonvalencoat 
ilepQt at, 121 ; chaplain for, 133 ; chapel 
and priest in, 120 ; tree planting at, 21U, 
213; fuel d(jp6h at, 317: barracks in, 
220; railway station at, 210 ; ynmfall in 
2*2, 243; tempera turn c>C, 248; observa- 
tory in, 251 , break of journey rwcoiu- 
mended at, 252 5 military hospital afc, 
354; school in, 201 ; Cantonment, Magis- 
trate at, 292, police station in, 290, 
Cantonment Act applies in, 399 ; mumci- 
palifcy proposed for, 299 ; water-supplr 
fco, 301 ; described, 311. 

■Wellington, Dako of, 104, 311 

W&alook, Lady, 318, 

Wenloek, Lord, 235, S3», 384. 285. 

Wenloek bridge, 328, SIS, 

Weulock Downs, 30, 232. 

Wet cultivation, .1(59. 



Wheat, 108. 164, 105, 10G, 203. 

Whwh, Sir. J. C. ,108. 

Widows, remarriage of, 163, 15(5, 150, 140, 
101. 

Wieland'e Fifty Yeai's uork of the Basel 
Misxwn on tht.' Nihjirix, 332 linte. # 

Wild doy;*, 33, 3-1. * 

Wilks, Colonel, f H. 

Willow Bnad, 24u, 240, 300. 302. 

Wilson, Mr. H. C, 48. 

Winds, 217, 349 

Woodbriav eaiati*, 307. 309. 

Woodcock, 37. 

Woolly. Mr. Richard, 239. 

Wutoln-mund, 111. 

Wright, Mr, Adolphus, 372, 37-1. 

Wynaad , desirripUon of, 0' ; geology of, 13 ; 
elephants and tigeis in, 30; rules for 
shoo tins* iittd !ishin<> in, 33 ; squirrels of, 
35; blue-wiutfed parafcofc in. 37; 
shntif's in, 00 j political history' of, 
iU-}0.">; Masiiilyudi formerly inMdvtl 
in, 03,331; Mappillas in, 125; /spelv 
in, 120 ; work of the. C^toflpm, 127 ; 
principal castes of, 1SS, 15£~02; To da 
mauds in, 119 ; Kuriunbaa in, "153; 
ECuramlm gods supposed to liavo come 
fioiu, llitf ; cultivation in, 168; coffee 
pests in, 175, 170, rubber tried in, 191; 
IWestft m, 208, 211,219; trade of, 224 ; 
roads in, 235, [Innate of, 252 ; ro venue 
history of, 273; toddy in, 28fij erimmal 
oastt'w in. 21W; Gudalur taluk in, 3fi.j. 

Wynaaditu Clii'ttis, 30, 15:*. 



YeddapulH uillago, 301. 
YoHaiiliulU, 112,113, 230. 237, 200. 



Zenana Mission, la?, 200, £05, 
2o<ilojfv, 28-44.